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The End of Empire - Attila the Hun and the Fall of Rome
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Publishers&Weekly&Drawing&on&the&Roman&historian&Priscus&of&Panium's&History&of&Attila&the&Hun,&Cambridge&University&historian&Kelly&(Ruling&the&Later&Roman&Empire)&restores&the&image&of&Attila&as&a&politically&ingenious&leader&bent&more&on&making&strategic&alliances&to&benefit&his&people&than&conquering&neighboring&tribes&by&savage&attacks.&With&the&grace&of&a&good&storyteller,&Kelly&narrates&the&Huns'&origins&as&nomadic&peoples&who&eventually&settled&in&the&Great&Hungarian&Plain.&As&they&began&to&consolidate&their&control&over&new&territories,&says&Kelly,&the&Huns&recognized&the&need&for&a&more&stable&form&of&government,&a&greater&concentration&of&military&effort&focused&on&a&single&objective,&and&the&closer&coordination&of&all&clans&under&one&leader.&In&A.D.&434,&they&found&their&leader&in&Attila,&and&the&Huns&steadily&conquered-by&force&and&by&strategic&political&agreements-various&regions&of&the&Roman&Empire.&They&were&never&able&to&take&Rome,&but&battling&the&Huns&so&weakened&Rome's&resources&that&Vandals&sacked&the&city&in&A.D.&455,&effectively&ending&the&Western&Roman&Empire.&Kelly's&first-rate&history&provides&a&singularly&fresh&look&at&a&fractious&period&in&the&life&of&ancient&Rome.&Maps.&(June)&Copyright&?&Reed&Business&Information,&a&division&of&Reed&Elsevier&Inc.&All&rights&reserved.&Library&Journal&Kelly&(ancient&history,&Univ.&of&C&The&Roman&Empire:&A&Very&Short&Introduction)&paints&an&engaging&portrait&of&Attila&the&Hun's&rise&to&prominence&and&places&the&feared&warlord&in&the&context&of&his&own&time.&The&title&is&something&of&a&misnomer,&as&Kelly&writes&of&Attila's&ability&to&build&his&own&empire&as&well&as&his&significant&part&in&the&destruction&of&Rome's&empire.&As&the&author&explains,&Attila&was&aware&that&it&was&not&in&his&best&interest&to&hasten&the&decline&of&the&Roman&Empire&because&much&of&his&control&over&his&own&people&and&lands&was&paid&for&with&Roman&gold&that&he&received&through&bribes&and&raids.&Kelly's&well-written&narrative&is&founded&on&extensive&research,&and&he&provides&informative&notes&as&well&as&suggestions&for&further&reading.&Recommended&as&an&excellent&addition&to&libraries&with&collections&in&ancient&history,&Roman&history,&European&history,&or&classical&studies.&—Crystal&Goldman
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Highest Quality Live&Programs英美概况&“英国历史部分重点知识&”中英文对照
英国历史部分可整理成这样一条线索
（一）早期定居者
early settlers
1、人们所知的英国最早居民是伊比利来人。2．At
about 2000 BC the Beaker Folk arrived from the areas now know as
Holland and Rhineland.&约公元前年，从现在的荷兰和莱茵兰地区来了宽口陶器人。3．The
Celts began to arrive Britain about 700 BC.&约公元前年，克尔特人来到不列颠岛。4．The
Celts came to Britain in three main waves.&克尔特人来到不列颠有三次高潮。The
first wave were the Gaels-came about 600 BC.&第一次高潮是约公元前年盖尔人的来临。The
second wave were the Brythons-came about 400 BC.&第二次高潮是约公元前年布立吞（不列颠）人的抵达。The
third wave were the Belgae-came about 150 BC.&第三次是约公元前年比利奇人的到达。
（二）罗马时代
、有记录的英国历史开始于罗马人的入侵。公元前年和年，罗马将军朱略斯凯撒两次入侵英国，均未成功。直到公元年，克劳锹才成功占领不列颠。将近四百年里，英国人处于罗马人的占领下，但这并非是完全的占领。2、Roman’s
influence on Britain. The Roman built many towns, road, baths,
temples and buildings. They make good use of Britain’s natural
resources. They also brought the new religion, Christianity, to
Britain.&罗马人修建了许多城镇网，道路，澡堂，庙宇和其他建筑物。他们还很好地利用了英国的自然资源。罗马人还把基督教这门新宗教带到不列颠。3、罗马对不列颠的影响有限的原因。First,
the Romans always treated the Britons as a subject people of slave
class. Second, never during the 4 centuries did the Romans and
Britons intermarry. Third, the Romans had no impact on the language
or culture of ordinary Britons.&首先，罗马人把不列颠人当作奴隶阶段的属民来对待。其次，在四世纪对罗马人和不列颠人通婚。最后，罗马人也未影响普通不列颠人的语言和文化。
（三）安格鲁撒克逊时代
——Anglo-Saxons 1．&Basis
of Modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons.&盎格鲁—萨克逊时代（奠定了英国的基础）&In
the mid-5th century a new wave of invaders, Jutes, Saxons, and
Angles came to Britain. They were three Teutonic tribes. The Jutes,
who fished and farmed in Jutland, came to Britain first. A Jutish
chief became the King of Kent in 449. Then the Saxons, users of the
short-sword from northern Germany, established their kingdom in
Essex, Sussex and Wessex from the end of the 5th century to the
beginning of the 6th century. In the second half of the 6th
century. In the second half of the 6th century, the Angles, who
also came from northern Germany and were to give their name to the
English people, settled in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria.
These seven principal kingdoms of Kent, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, East
Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria have been given the name of
Heptarchy.&五世纪中叶，朱特人、撒克逊人和盎格鲁人不断入侵不列颠。这是三支日耳曼（条顿）部落。居住在朱特兰岛（现丹麦南部）上从事打渔农耕的朱特人先抵不列颠。后来从德国北部来的使用短剑的撒克逊人在埃撒克斯、苏塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王国，统治期从五世纪末至六世纪初。六世纪后半叶，同样来自德国北部的盎格鲁人，在东盎格利亚、麦西亚以及诺森伯利来定居，同时也他们也把名字给了英国人。这七个主要王国（肯特、埃塞克斯、苏塞克斯、威塞克斯、东盎格利亚、麦西亚和诺森伯利亚），合称为七王国。&2．The
early Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity.&最早的盎格鲁—撒克逊人改信基督教。&The
Anglo-Saxons brought their own Teutonic religion to Britain.
Christianity soon disappeared, except among the Celts of Cornwall,
Wales, Scotland and Ireland. In 597, Pope Gregory I sent St.
Augustine, the Prior of St. Andrew’s Monastery in Rome, to England
to convert the heathen English to Christianity. In 579 St.
Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. He was
remarkably successful in converting the king and the nobility, but
the conversion of the common people was largely due to the
missionary activities of the monks in the north.&盎格鲁—撒克逊人把日耳曼宗教带到了英国。除了康瓦尔、威尔士、苏格兰和爱尔兰中的克尔特人还信奉基督教外，基督教很快就消失了。公元597，教皇格里高一世把罗马圣安德鲁修道院的副院长圣奥古斯丁派遣到英格兰，其使命是使异教徒的英国人皈依基督教。公元579年圣奥古丁成为坎特伯雷大主教。在使国王和贵族皈依基督教方面，奥古斯丁特别成功。但是普通人的皈依很大程度上归功于北部修士们的传教活动。&3．The
Early Anglo-Saxons make the contributions to the English
state.&早期盎格鲁—撒克逊人为英国做出的贡献。&The
Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state. Firstly,
they divided the country into shires, with shire courts and shire
reeves, or sheriffs, responsible for administering law. Secondly,
they devised the narrow-strip, three-field farming system which
continued to the 18th century. Thirdly, they also established the
manorial system. Finally, they created the
Witan（council or meeting of the
wisemen）&to advise the
king, the basis of the Privy Council which still exists
today.&盎格鲁—撒克逊人为英国国家的形成打下了基础。首先，他们把国家划分为郡，郡法庭和郡法官、或行政司法长官负责执法。其次，他们设计的窄条三圃田农耕制延用至18世纪。此外，他们还建立了领地制。最后，他们还创立了议会(贤人会议)，向国王提供建议，这就成为了今天仍存在的枢密院的基础。
（四）关于诺曼征服（1066）——the Viking and Danish Invations
1．The invaders were the Norwegians and the Danes. They
attacked various parts of England from the end of the 8th century.
They became a serious problem in the 9th century, especially
between 835 and 878. They even managed to capture York, an
important center of Christianity in 867. By the middle of 9th
century, the Viking and the Danes were posing a threat to the Saxon
kingdom of Wessex.&入侵者是挪威人和丹麦人，从8世纪末开始，他们不断袭击英格兰的各个地方。9世纪，尤其是公元835-878年间已成为严重问题。他们甚至占领了约克郡，公元867年时的基督教中心。到9世纪中叶，北欧海盗和丹麦人威胁到撒克逊人的威撒克斯王国的安全。&2．King
Alfred (849-899) and his contributions&艾尔弗雷德国王（849-899）和他所做出的贡献&Alfred
was a king of Wessex. He defeated the Danes and reached a friendly
agreement with them in 879. The Danes gained control of the north
and east, while he ruled the rest. He also converted some leading
Danes into Christians. He founded a strong fleet and is known as “
the father of the British navy”. He reorganized the Saxon army,
making it more efficient. He translated a Latin book into English.
He also established schools and formulated a legal system. All this
earns him the title “Alfred the Great.”&阿尔弗雷德是威塞克斯的国王。他打败了丹麦人，并于公元879年与他们达成了友好协议。协议规定丹麦人控制英格兰北部和西部（丹麦法区），而他统治其他地区。他还劝服一些丹麦首领成为基督教徒。他因为建立了强大舰队，而以“英国海军之父”闻名于世。他改组了“弗立德”（撒克逊军队），使之更为高效。他将一本拉丁语的书翻译成英语。同时他还建立了学校，并且阐明了法律制度。所有这一切使他当之无愧于“阿尔弗雷德大王。”的称号。&——the
Norman Conquest（1066）&1．Reasons
for William’s invasion of England after Edward’s death.&威廉在爱德华死后入侵英国的原因。&It
was said that king Edward had promised the English throne to
William, but the Witan chose Harold as king. So William led his
army to invade England. In October 1066, during the important
battle of Hastings, William defeated Harold and killed him. One
Christmas Day, William was crowned king of England, thus beginning
the Norman Conquest of England.&据说，爱德华国王曾答应把英格兰王位传给诺曼底公爵威廉，但是贤人会议挑选了哈罗德为国王。公元1066年10月，在哈斯丁斯附近的激烈交锋中，威廉打败了哈罗德军队，同时哈罗德也在此战争中战死。
Norman Conquest and its consequences&诺曼征服及其产生的影响。&The
Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English
history. William the Conqueror confiscated almost all the land and
gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule
with a strong Norman government. He replaced the weak Saxon rule
with a strong Norman government. So the feudal system was
completely established in England. Relations with the Continent
were opened, and the civilization and commerce were extended.
Norman-French culture, language, manners and architecture were
introduced. The Church was brought into closer connection with
Rome, and the church courts were separated from the civil courts.
1066年的诺曼征服也许是英国历史上的最著名事件。征服者威廉几乎没收了所有土地，将其分发给他的诺曼追随者。他用强有力的诺曼政府代替了软弱的萨克逊政府。于是，封建制度在英国完全建立。开放了与欧洲大陆的关系，文明和商业得到发展，引进了诺曼—法国文化、语言、举止和建筑。教会与罗马的联系更为密切，教会法庭与世俗法庭分离。&3．The
English is a mixture of nationalities of different origins. The
ancestors of many English people were the ancient Angles and
Saxons. Some English people are of the Norman-French
origin.&英国是一个集不同民族于一体的国家。许多英国人的祖先是古盎格鲁和撒克逊人。而还有一些英国人的是诺曼血统。
（五）威廉统治下的英国
——William’s Rule&（）&England's
feudalism under the rule of William the Conqueror&在威廉统治下的英国封建制度&①Under
William, the feudal system in England was completely established.
②According to this system, the King owned all the land personally.
③William gave his barons large estates in England in return for a
promise of military service and a proportion of the land's produce.
④These estates were scattered far and wide over the country, so
that those who held them could not easily combine to rebel the
king. ⑤The barons, who had become William's tenants-in-chief,
parceled out land to the lesser nobles, knights and freemen, also
in return for goods and services. ⑥At the bottom of the feudal
scale were the villeins or serfs. ⑦One peculiar feature of the
feudal system of England was that all landowners must take the oath
of allegiance，not only to their immediate lord, but
also to the king.
①在威廉统治下，英国的封建制度得到完全确立。②根据此制度，国王拥有全国所有土地。③威廉把英国的大片土地分给贵族，条件是换取对方服役和收租。④这些地产分散于各处，这样土地拥有者就不易联合起来反叛国王。⑤已成为国王土地承租人的贵族又把土地分配给小贵族、骑士和自由民，同样换取货物和服役。⑥在封建等级底层的是农奴。⑦英国封建制独有的特色就是，无论是土地承租人还是二佃户，都必须要宣誓效忠于直接领主，而且要效忠于国王。&2.
King Henry II and his reforms&亨利二世国王和他的改革&The
ways King Henry II consolidate the monarchy.&亨利二世巩固君主制的途径。&Henry
II took some measures to consolidate the monarchy. He forced the
Flemish mercenaries to leave E recalled grants of Royal
lands made by his previous king S demolished many castles
built in Stephen’ strengthened and widened the powers of his
sheriffs and relied for armed support upon a militia composed of
English freemen.&亨利二世采取了一些措施巩固君主制。他迫使弗兰德斯雇佣军离开英国，收回史蒂芬森赠出皇室土地；拆除几十座史蒂芬森时造德城堡，加强并扩大了他的行政长官们的权力，依靠由英国自由民组成的民兵获取军事支持。&The
ways Henry II reform the courts and the law.&亨利二世对法院及法律进行改革的方式。&King
Henry II greatly strengthened the Court and extended its judicial
work. He divided the whole country into six circuits and appointed
justices to each. Cases were therefore heard before the
intermittent justices who applied the law impartially. During his
reign, a common law was gradually established in place of the
previous laws of the local barons. He also introduced a new jury
system to replace the old ordeal-based trial system. Besides, he
shifted the trial of clergymen charged with criminal offenses from
the Bishop's court to the King's court.&亨利二世大大加强了王家法院，扩展了其司法工作的职权范围。他将全国分为六个审制区。案件更多地由巡回法官审理，并不偏不倚地使用法律。在他统治时期，逐渐建立起超越地方领主法律的普遍法。另外，他用陪审员制度代替了旧的残酷的审判制度。他坚持被控犯有刑事罪的神职人员应由国王法庭审判，而不由主教法庭审判。
（六）大宪章和英国议会起源
、《大宪章》的内容及意义Great
Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the press of the
barons. It consists of sixty-three clauses. Its important
provisions are as follows: (1) no tax should be made without the
approval of the Grand C (2) no freemen should be arrested,
imprisoned or depriv (3) the Church should
possess all its rights, together with
London and other towns should retain their traditional rights and
privileges, and (5) there should be the same weights and measures
throughout the country. Although The Great Charter has long been
popularly regarded as the foundation of English liberties, it was a
statement of the feudal and legal relationships between the Crown
and the barons, a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a
limitation of the powers of the king. The spirit of the Great
Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king, keeping them
within the bounds of the feudal law of the land.&《大宪章》是约翰国王年在封建贵族压力下签定的。《大宪章》总共条，其中最重要的内容是：未经大议会同意，不得征税；只有根据国家有关法律才能逮捕、监禁自由人以及剥夺他们的财产；教会应享受其所有权利且有选举自由；（）伦敦和其它城镇应保留其古时的权力和特权；全国要使用统一的重量和长度度量衡。尽管人们普遍认为《大宪章》为英国的自由奠定了基础，但该宪章只是规定国王和贵族之间封建关系和法律关系的文件，保证了教会的自由，限制了国王权利。《大宪章》的精神是限制国王权力，使其在英国封建法律允许的范围内活动。
2、英国议会的起源The
Great Council is known to be the prototype of the current British
Parliament. In 1265, Simon de Montfort summoned the Great Council,
together with two knights from each county and two citizens from
each town. It later developed into the House of Lords and the House
of Commons. Its main role was to offer advice. There were no
elections or parties. And the most important part of Parliament was
the House of Lords.&大议会是当今英国议会的原型。年，西门德孟福尔召开大议会，各县有两名骑士，各镇有两名市民参加。大议会发展到后来演变成议会，分为上议院和下议院。其作用是咨询而非决定；也没有选举和政党。议会的最重要的部分是上议院。
（七）关于百年战争
——the Hundred Year’s War The Hundred Years' War and its
consequences.&百年战争及其结果&The
Hundred Years’ War refers to the war between England and France
that lasted intermittently from 1337 to 1453. The causes of the war
were partly territorial and partly economic. The territorial causes
were related with the possession by the English kings of the large
duchy in France, while the French kings coveted this large slice.
The economic causes were connected with cloth manufacturing towns
in Flanders, which were the importer of English wool, but they were
loyal to the French king politically. Besides, England's desire to
stop France from giving aid to Scots and a growing sense of
nationalism were the other causes. The English's being driven out
of France is regarded as a blessing for both countries. If the
English had remained in France, the superior size and wealth of
France would have hindered the development of a separate English
national identity, while France was hindered so long as a foreign
power occupied so much French territory.&百年战争指1337年到1453年英法之间一场断断续续的战争，战争的起因既有领土因素又有经济因素。领土起因尤其是与英国国王拥有法国的阿基坦大片公爵领地有密切关系，随着法国国王势力日增，他们渴望占领这片在他们领土内的土地。经济原因则与弗兰德斯有关。弗兰德斯地区生产棉布的城镇是英国羊毛的主要进口商，但这些城镇在政治上却效忠法国国王。其他原因还有英国试图阻止法国帮助苏格兰人，以及不断觉醒的民族意识。战争的结果：把英国人赶出法国对两个国家都是幸事：若国车人继续留在法国，那么法国人在领土和财富上所占的优势必然会阻碍分离的英国民族的发展；而法国民族被外国势力占领了众多的领土，发展更是长期受阻。
(八)黑死病
&——The Black Death&黑死病&The
Black Death is the modern name given to the deadly epidemic disease
spread by rat fleas across Europe in the 14th century. It swept
through England in the summer of 1348. It reduced England's
population from four million to two million by the end of the 14th
century. The economic consequences of the Black Death were
far-reaching. As a result of the plague, much land was left
untended and there was a terrible shortage of labour. The surviving
peasants had better bargaining power and were in a position to
change their serfdom into paid labour. Some landlords, unable or
unwilling to pay higher wages, tried to force peasants back into
serfdom. In 1351 the government issued a Statute of Labourers which
made it a crime for peasants to ask for more wages or for their
employers to pay more than the rates laid down by the Justices of
the Peace.&黑死病是指由鼠疫蚤传播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫，是一种流行疾病，在14世纪传播了到欧洲。1348年夏天横扫全英国。英国的人口在14世纪末从400万锐减至200万。黑死病对经济造成的后果更为深远。鼠疫导致了大片土地无人照管和劳动力极度匮乏。地主想把耕地变为人力需求较少的牧场。存活的农民处于有利的计价还价地位，从农奴变为雇佣劳动力。于是一些支付不起或不愿意支付较高工资的地主想方设法迫使农民重返农奴地位。1351年政府颁布“劳工法令”，规定农民们涨工资的要求，或者是雇主支付比地方官制订的工资水平要高的工资都是犯罪。&——The
Peasant Uprising of 1381 and its significance
1381年农民起义及其意义&Armed villagers
and townsmen of Kent and Essex, led by Wat Tyler and Jack Straw,
moved on London in June, 1381. The king was forced to accept their
demands. Most of the rebels dispersed and went home, while Tyler
and other leaders stayed on for more rights. Tyler was killed at a
meeting with the king. The uprising was brutally suppressed, but it
had far-reaching significance in English history. First, it
directed against the rich clergy, lawyers and the landowners.
Second, it dealt a telling blow to villeinage, and third, a new
class of yeomen farmers emerged, paving the way to the development
of capitalism. 1381年6月，在瓦特 泰勒和杰克
斯特劳领导下，凯特郡和埃塞克斯郡的农民和市民武装起来发动起义，并向伦敦进发。国王被迫接受了他们的要求。大多数起义农民解散回家，但泰勒和其他坚决的农民留下来要求得到更多的法律、宗教和政治权利。泰勒在又一次与国王的会见中被杀死。尽管起义被血腥镇压，但在英国历史上留下了深远的影响。这次起义具有真实的社会性，把矛头直接对准了富有的教职人员、律师和地主。这次起义沉重打击了封建农奴制度，产生了全新的自耕农阶级，为资本主义发展铺设了道路。
（九）宗教改革
（——the English Reformation&英国的宗教改革&Henry
VIII was above all responsible for the religious reform of the
church. There were three main causes: a desire for change and
reform in the church had been growing for many years and now,
encouraged by the success of Martin Luther, many people believed
the privilege and wealth of the clergy were
and Henry needed money.&最重要的是，亨利八世负责进行教会的宗教改革。改革原因有三个主要方面：改革教会的渴望已有多年，现在又受马丁路德成功的鼓舞，许多人认为时机已到；人们痛恨教职人员的威望和财富；亨利需要钱。&The
reform began as a struggle for a divorce and ended in freedom from
the Papacy. Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon but
the Pope refused. Henry’s reforms was to get rid of the English
Church’s connection with the Pope, and to make an independent
Church of England. He made this break with Rome gradually between
1529 and 1534. He dissolved all of England’s monasteries and
nunneries because they were more loyal to the Pope than to their
English kings. The laws such as the Act of succession of 1534 and
the Act of Supremacy of 1535 made his reform possible. He
established the church of England as the national church of the
country, and he made himself the supreme head of the church of
England.&改革以争取离婚而开始，以脱离教皇而告终。亨利八世欲与阿拉贡的凯瑟琳离婚，但是教皇拒绝了。亨利改革的目的是摆脱英国教会与教皇的联系，成立独立的英格兰教会。1529年至1534年间逐渐地与罗马脱离了关系。他解散了所有英国的修道院和修女院，因为后者对教皇比对英国国王更忠诚。1534年的《继位法》和1535年的《至尊法案》使改革具有了可行性。1535年他获“英格兰教会最高首脑”之称号。&Henry
VIII’s reform stressed the power of the monarch and certainly
strengthened Henry’ Parliament had never done such a
long and important piece of work before, its importance grew as a
result. His attack on the Pope’s power encouraged many critics of
abuses of the Catholic Church. England was moving away form
Catholicism towards protestaintism.&改革的三大影响：亨利的改革强调了君主权力，自然加强了亨利的地位；议会以往从未做过如此漫长而重要的工作，自然其重要性也有所加强；他对教皇权力的打击鼓舞许多人批评指责天主教会，并希望从天主教转向新教。
(十)玫瑰战争
&——Transition to the Modern Age
() The Wars of Rose The name Wars of the Roses was refer
to the battles between the House of Lancaster, symbolized by the
read rose, and that of York, symbolized by the white, from 1455 to
1485. Henry Tudor, descendant of Duke of Lancaster won victory at
Bosworth Fireld in 1485 and put ht country under the rule of the
Tudors. From these Wars, English feudalism received its death blow.
The great medieval nobility was much weakened.&玫瑰战争是指，从1455年到1485年，以红玫瑰为象征的兰开斯特大家族和以白玫瑰为象征的约克家族之间战争的普遍接受的名称。1485年，兰开斯特家族的后代亨利都铎取得了博斯沃恩战役的胜利，建立了都铎王朝。这些战争使英国的封建主义受到致命打击，贵族阶层受到了削弱。
(十一)伊丽莎白改革
——Elizabeth I () Elizabeth's religious reform and her
foreign policy&伊莉莎白的宗教改革和外交政策&Elizabeth's
religious reform was a compromise of views. She broke Mary's ties
with Rome and restored her father's independent Church of England,
i.e. keeping to Catholic doctrines and practices but to be free of
the Papal control. He religious settlement was unacceptable to both
the extreme Protestants known as Puritans and to ardent Catholics.
For nearly 30 years Elizabeth successfully played off against each
other the two great Catholic powers, France and Spain, and
prevented England from getting involved in any major European
conflict. Through her marriage alliances which were never
materialized, Elizabeth managed to maintain a friendly relationship
with France. So England wad able to face the danger from
Spain.&伊莉莎白的宗教改革是各种观点的妥协。她中断玛丽与罗马的关系，恢复父王独立的英格兰教会，也就是说保持天主教教条及习俗，但不受教皇控制。她的宗教和解既不被极端的新教徒（即清教徒）所接受，也不为虔诚的天主教徒所接受。近30年的时间，伊莉莎白成功地令两大天主教强国法国和西班牙互相斗杀，从而免于英国卷入任何主要的欧洲国的冲突。通过她从未具体化的联姻，伊莉莎白设法与法国维持友好关系，因此英国能面对来自西班牙的危险。
(十二)英国的文艺复兴
——the English Renaissance Distinctive features of the English
Renaissance&英国文艺复兴的特点&1)
English culture was revitalized not so much directly by the
classics as by contemporary Europeans under the influence of the
2) England as an insular country followed a course of
social and political history which was to a great extent
independent of the course of history elsewhere in E 3) Owing
to the great genius of the 14th century poet Chaucer, the native
literature was sufficiently vigorous and experienced in
assimilating for foreign influences without being subjected by
4) English Renaissance coincided with the Reformation in
England.&英国文艺复兴的五个特点：1）英国文化的复兴并不是直接通过古典作品，崦是通过受古典作品影响同时代的欧洲人实现的；2）英格兰作为一个与大陆隔离的国家，其社会历史进程很大程度上独立于欧洲其它国家；3）由于14世纪伟大的天才诗人乔叟的出现，英国本国文学得以蓬勃发展，能够在吸收外国文学影响的同时，并未处于从属地位；4）英国文艺复兴文学首先是艺术的，其次才是哲学的和学术的；5）文艺复兴和英格兰的宗教改革在时间上有所交叉。
(十三)英国内战(1642
—the Civil War and their consequences Because of the absolute rule
of Charles, the confrontation between Charles I and the _parliament
developed into the civil war. The war began on August 22,1642 and
ended in 1651. Charles I was condemned to death. The English Civil
War is also called the Puritan Revolution. It has been seen as a
conflict between the parliament and the King, and a conflict
between economic interests of the Crown. The economic interests of
the urban middle classed coincided with their religious ( Puritan)
ideology while the Crown’s traditional economic interests
correspondingly allied with Anglican religious belief. The English
Civil War not only overthrew feudal system in England but also
shook the foundation of the feudal rule in Europe. It is generally
regarded as the beginning of modern world history.&由于查尔斯的“君权神授”统治权，他与议会的对质发展成了内战。战争开始于1642年8月22日，结束于1651年。最后查尔斯被处死。英国内战又称为清教徒革命。这是议会和国王间的冲突，也是城市中产阶级的经济利益与皇室传统经济利益之间的冲突。城市中产阶级经济利益刚好与他们的宗教（清教）思想吻合，相应地，皇室传统的经济利益则与圣公会教的宗教信仰相结合在一起。英国内战不仅推翻了英国的封建制度，而且动摇了欧洲封建经济的基础。英国内战通常被看作是现代世界史的开端。
(十四)王政复辟
&——The Restoration&王政复辟&When
Oliver Cromwell died in 1658 and was succeeded by his son, Richard,
the regime began to collapse. One of Cromwell's generals George
Monck, occupied London and arranged for new parliamentary
elections. The Parliament thus was elected in 1660 resolved the
crisis by asking the late King's son to return from his exile in
France as king Charles II. It was called the Restoration.
1658年奥利弗克伦威尔去世，他的儿子理查德继任护国公，政权立即开始瓦解。克伦威尔的一位将军乔治蒙克占领伦敦，安排新的议会选举。1660年选出的议会要求上一任国王的儿子长期流亡地法国回国作国王查尔斯二世，从而解决了危机。这就是所谓的王政复辟。
（十五）光荣革命
年光荣革命In
1685 Charles II died and was succeeded by his brother James II.
James was brought up in exile in Europe, was a Catholic. He hoped
to rule without giving up his personal religious vies. But England
was no more tolerant of a Catholic king in 1688 than 40 years ago.
So the English politicians rejected James II, and appealed to a
Protestant king, William of Orange, to invade and take the English
throne. William landed in England in 1688. The takeover was
relatively smooth, with no bloodshed, nor any execution of the
king. This was known as the Glorious Revolution.
1685年查尔斯二世去世，由其弟詹姆斯二世继位。詹姆斯二世从小在欧洲流亡长大，是个天主教徒，他希望不放弃个人宗教信仰统治国家。但是的英国已不象年前那样能容忍天主教徒当国王了。英国政客反对詹姆斯二世，他们呼吁信奉新教的国王，奥兰治亲王威谦入侵英国夺取王位。年月日威廉在托尔比登陆并占领伦敦。这一占领相对平静，既未流血也未处死国王，所以就称为光荣革命。——The
Gunpowder Plot of 1605 The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was the most
famous of the Catholic conspiracies. On Nov. 5,1605, a few
fanatical Catholics attempted to blow King James and his ministers
up in the House of Parliament where Guy Fawkes had planted barrels
of gun-powder in the cellars. The immediate result was the
execution of Fawkes and his fellow-conspirators and imposition of
severe anti-Catholic laws. The long-term result has been an annual
celebration on Nov. 5, when a bonfire is lit to turn a guy and a
firework display is arranged. 1605年的火药阴谋案是最著名的天主教阴谋。年月日，几个狂热的天主教徒企图在议会大厦炸死国王和大臣，盖伊福克斯已在地窖放了炸药桶。结果是福克斯和同伙被立即处死，以及更严厉的反天主教法律的颁发。长斯结果是每年月日举行庆祝仪式，点燃火堆焚烧盖伊模拟像并燃放烟火。——The
Rise and Fall of the British Empire ()&大英帝国的兴衰I.
Whigs and Tories&辉格党人和托利党人These
two party names originated with the Glorious Revolution
(1688).&这两个政党名称皆起源于年的光荣革命。The
Whig were those who opposed absolute monarchy and supported the
right to religious freedom for Nonconformists. The Whig were to
form a coalition with dissident Tories in the mid-19th century and
become the Liberal Party.&辉格党人是指那些反对绝对王权，支持新教徒宗教自由权利的人。辉格党人在世纪中叶与持不同意见的托利党人组盟组成自由党。The
Tories were those who supported hereditary monarchy and were
reluctant to remove kings. The Tories were the forerunners of the
Conservative Party.&托利党人是指那些支持世袭王权、不愿去除国王的人。托利党是保守党的前身。——Agricultural
Changes in the Late 18th Century During the late 18th and early
19th centuries, the “open-field” system ended when the Enclosure
Act was passed. The movement lasted for centuries. Agricultural
enclosure had good as well as bad results:
18世纪末、世纪初的农业革命期间，随着《圈地法》的颁布，传统的开放田地制结束。圈地运动持续了将近一个多世纪。农业圈地运动的利弊共存：（）Farms
became bigger and bigger units as the great bought up the
&由于大农场兼并了小农场，农场成为越来越在的生产单位；（）More
vegetables, more milk and more dairy produce were consumed, and
die&人们消费的蔬菜，牛奶及奶制品越来越多，饮食种类愈加丰富；（）Enclosure
was a disaster for the tenants evicted from their lands by the
enclosures. These peasant farmers were forced to look for work in
towns. Enclosure led to mass emigration, particularly to the New
W&圈地对佃家而言是场灾难，他们被赶出土地，被迫到城镇找工作。圈地运动导致了大规模的移民，尤其是移民至新大陆。（）A
new class hostility was introduced into rural
relationships.&农村关系中产生了新的阶级对立
（十六）工业革命以及两次世界大战的英国
．工业革命指的是世纪末、世纪初英国工业的机械化，以及因此而导致的社会结构和经济结构的变化。2．英国成为第一个工业化的国家，原因如下：(1)
Favourable geopraphical location. Britain was well placed
geographically to participate in European and world
&优越的地理位置：英国地理位置优越，适合参与欧洲与世界贸易；(2)
Political stability. Britain had a peaceful society, which, after
the 17th century, was increasingly interested in overseas trade and
colonies. International trade brought wealth to merchants and city
bankers. They and those who had done well out of new farming
methods provided capital in large quantities for
industralization.&政治局面稳定。世纪后的英国社会宁静，对海外贸易和殖民地兴趣日增。国际贸易给商人和城市银行家带来财富，他们加上由于新农作法而发家的人们为工业化提供了大笔资金。(3)
Good foundation in economy. The limited monarchy which resulted
from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 ensured that the powerful
economic interests in the community could exert their influence
over Government policy. 1688年光荣革命限制了君主的权力，这使得强大的经济利益集团能对议会政策施加影响。(4)
It was a country in which the main towns were never too far from
seaports, or from rivers, which could distribute their
products.&英国的主要城镇皆靠近海港或河流，货物运送便利。(5)
Britain had many rivers, which were useful for transport but also
for water and steam power. Britain also had useful mineral
resources.&英国许多河流不仅用于交通，还提供水力及蒸汽动力。英国还有可用的矿产资源。(6)
British engineers had sound training as
craftsmen.英国工程师为训练有素的手工艺人。(7)
The inventors were respected. They solved practical
problems.&发明家受人尊重，他们解决了实际难题。(8)
Probably laissez faire and “Protestant work ethic”
helped.&很可能利益于放手干及新教工作道德。(9)
England, Scotland, and Wales formed a customs union after 1707 and
this included Ireland after 1807. So the national market was not
hindered by internal customs barriers.
1707年后，英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士形成关税联盟，年后爱尔兰加入。因此，全国市场不再受阴于内部的关税障碍。(10)
The enclosures and other improvements in agriculture made their
contributions by providing food for the rising population, labour
for the factories, and some of the raw materials needed by
industry.&圈地运动和其它农业改良为增加的人口提供了粮食，为工厂提供了劳动力，为工业提供了所需的一些原材料。3．工业革命中一些重大创新(1)
John Kay’s flying shuttle in 年，约翰凯的飞梭；(2)
James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny in 1766;
1766年詹姆士哈格里夫斯詹妮纺纱机；(3)
Richard Arkwright’s waterframe in 1769;
1769年理查德阿克赖特的水力纺织机；(4)
Samuel Crompton’s mule in 年塞缪尔克朗普顿的走绽纺纱机；(5)
Edmund Cartwright’s power loom in 1784;
1784年爱德蒙卡特莱特发明的力织机；(6)
James Watt’s steam engine in 年詹姆斯瓦特的高效蒸汽机。4．工业革命的结果（）Britain
was by 1830 the “workshop of the world”;&英国成为了世界工场；（）Towns
grew rapidly and became the source of the nation’s
wealth.&城镇迅速兴起，成为国家财富的源泉。（）Mechanization
destroyed the livelihood of those who could not invest in it . The
working men worked and lived in a appalling conditions.&机械化摧毁了不能投入其中的人们的生活。工人们在可怕的条件下劳动与生活。（）The
industrial revolution created the industrial working class, the
proletariat, and it later led to trade unionism.&工业革命产生了工人阶级，即无产阶级。后来形成了工会制度。——in
the two World Wars The effects of the New York Stock Market Crash
of 1929 soon spread throughout Europe and by 1931 Britain was
entering the Great depression. 1929年纽约股票交易所崩溃的影响迅速波及欧洲，到年英国进入经济大萧条。3.
Britain and the Second World War&英国与第二次世界大战As
Adolf Hitler and Nazism showed off their aggressive momentum in
Europe, Chamberlain, the Prime Minister, found his policy of
appeasement of German aggression was no longer tenable, and was
forced to declare war on Germany on September 3,1939.&当阿道夫希特勒及纳粹主义显示他们对欧洲的侵略意图时，首相张伯伦发现他的绥靖政策已站不住脚，只得于年月日对德宣战。4.
Postwar Britian&战后的英国(1)
One of the most far-reaching consequences of the War was that it
hastened the end of Britain’s empire.&二战最为深远的结果之一是加速了大英帝国的瓦解。(2)
In 1952 Princess Elizabeth was crowned Queen Elizabeth II. Many
people through television saw the ceremony.
1952年伊莉莎白公主加冕成为伊莉莎白女王二世。新发明的电视使许多人看到了加冕仪式的过程。(4)
In January 1973, Britain became a full member of the European
Economic Community which was still called the Common Market in
1973. Britain witnessed the first oil shock in 1973.
1973年月，英国终于成为欧洲经济共同体的正式成员国。年仍称为共同市场。年英国经历了第一次石油禁运。(5)
Mrs Thatcher&撒切尔主义Thatcherism
referred to the policies put forward by Margaret Thatcher, the
first woman prime minister in England in 1979. The main contents of
her policies included the return to private ownership of
state-owned industries, the use of monetarist policies to control
inflation, the weakening of trade unions the strengthening of the
role of market forces in the economy, and an emphasis on law and
order. To some extent her program was successful and she led one of
the most remarkable periods in the British economy.
1979年撒切尔夫人成为英国第一任女首相。她提出的政策被为撒切尔主义。其内容包括国有工业私有化，采用货币主义政策以控制通货膨胀，削弱工会的影响，加强市场因素在经济中的作用，强调法律和秩序。在一定程度上讲，她的计划是成功的。她领导英国经济度过了一段最繁华的时期之一。
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