ASIAN JOURNAL OFfood chemistryY上September part-A 2014什么意思

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有谁知道亚洲有机化学的影响因子The Asian Journal of Organic Chemistry
刚投了亚洲化学Chemistry - An Asian Journal,编辑没有拿给审稿人审稿,而是直接回绝,并推荐我们投他的姐妹篇亚洲有机化学(The Asian Journal of Organic Chemistry )或欧洲有机化学(European Journal of Organic Chemistry ),欧洲有机化学我知道影响因子3.1,但是亚洲有机化学好像是今年刚办的,不知道其影响因子,或者估计其影响是多少,不知道咋办,请各位虫友帮忙给点建议。下面是亚洲化学编辑后面给出的建议。
另外,在发给我的Decision on your manuscript asia.20120**** for Chemistry - An Asian Journal中,编辑也发了封这样的邮件给亚洲有机化学,在我收到的第二封e-mail中收件人就是The Asian Journal of Organic Chemistry,然后抄送给我的
Manuscripts that are not suitable for Chemistry-An Asian Journal may be considered by one of our sister journals after revision. The Asian Journal of Organic Chemistry (www.AsianJOC.org) is the new sister journal of Chemistry-An Asian Journal and EJOC-European Journal of Organic Chemistry and belongs to the ACES family of journals. The AsianJOC is designed to be a top-ranked international research journal that covers organic chemistry in its entirety. Should you wish to transfer your manuscript, please resubmit the paper directly to the Asian Journal of Organic Chemistry and quote the original submission number.
该刊不在2011 SCI期刊的list中 还不是SCI,没有IF。
一般新出来的杂志,编辑会推荐你投新的。 The Asian Journal of Organic Chemistry 这个杂志2012年才创刊的, 主编是诺贝尔奖得主noyori。杂志应该还是不错的,楼主可能面临学校的论文审核什么的那就得小心了,因为要出来影响因子至少要两年以后。 这个期刊是新的,还没出影响因子呢,不过定位也一般吧,不可能超过欧洲化学(<6)和亚洲化学(<5) 亚洲的if是0.29 : Originally posted by 浅水队长 at
亚洲的if是0.29 拜托,你说的是亚洲化学,很垃圾的期刊好不好,我说的是Wiley数据库收录的亚洲有机化学Asian Journal of Organic Chemistry,今年九月新出的期刊,据各位虫友的帮忙,目前if值还没出来。 该杂志主页上显示:该杂志只是ACS收录,被SCI收录估计还需点时间/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)/homepage/ProductInformation.html 楼主&&请问你的文章最后投这个杂志了吗?
我也遇到你这样的情况了 今天发现已经被SCIE收录了 : Originally posted by tongdingyi1128 at
今天发现已经被SCIE收录了 是吗?给个链接 : Originally posted by tongdingyi1128 at
今天发现已经被SCIE收录了 查了SCI,并没有查到有这个期刊,请问是哪里看到收录信息的? 刚查的影响因子2.292
期刊主页: /journal/10.1002/(ISSN);jsessionid=54D74521E8EFE428F9C33.f04t02From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see .
"Chemical science" redirects here. For the Royal Society of Chemistry journal, see .
Solutions of substances in reagent bottles, including
and , illuminated in different colors.
Chemistry is a branch of
that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of . In this realm, chemistry deals with such topics as the properties of individual , the manner in which atoms form
in the formation of , the interactions of substances through
to give matter its general properties, and the interactions between substances through
to form different substances.
Chemistry is sometimes called
because it bridges other
and . Chemistry is a branch of
has been much disputed. The
can be traced to certain practices, known as , which had been practiced for several
in various parts of the world.
comes from the word alchemy, an earlier set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, my it is commonly thought of[] as the quest to turn lead or another common starting material into gold. Alchemy, which was practiced around 330, is the study of the composition of waters, movement, growth, embodying, disembodying, drawing the spirits from bodies and bonding the spirits within bodies (). An alchemist was called a 'chemist' in popular speech, and later the suffix "-ry" was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as "chemistry".
The word alchemy in turn is derived from the
word al-kīmīā (????????). In origin, the term is borrowed from the Greek χημ?α or χημε?α. This may have
origins. Many[] believe that al-kīmīā is derived from the Greek χημ?α, which is in turn derived from the word Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of
in . Alternately, al-kīmīā may derive from χημε?α, meaning "cast together".
In retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term "chymistry", in the view of noted scientist
in 1661, meant the subject of the material principles of mixed bodies. In 1663 the chemist
described "chymistry" as a scientific art, by which one learns to dissolve bodies, and draw from them the different substances on their composition, and how to unite them again, and exalt them to a higher perfection.
The 1730 definition of the word "chemistry", as used by , meant the art of resolving mixed, compound, or aggregate bodies i and of composing such bodies from those principles. In 1837,
considered the word "chemistry" to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. This definition further evolved until, in 1947, it came to mean the science of substances: their structure, their properties, and the reactions that change them into other substances - a characterization accepted by . More recently, in 1998, Professor
broadened the definition of "chemistry" to mean the study of matter and the changes it undergoes.
Main article:
' atomist philosophy was later adopted by
(341–270 BCE).
Early civilizations, such as the
amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didn't develop a systematic theory.
A basic chemical hypothesis first emerged in
with the theory of
as propounded definitively by
stating that that , ,
were the fundamental elements from which everything is formed as a combination.
dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by philosophers such as
and . In 50 BC, the
philosopher
expanded upon the theory in his book
(On The Nature of Things). Unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments.
the art of alchemy first proliferated, mingling magic and occultism into the study of natural substances with the ultimate goal of transmuting elements into
and discovering the elixir of eternal life. Alchemy was discovered and practised widely throughout the
after the , and from there, diffused into medieval and
Europe through Latin translations.
Under the influence of the
propounded by
and others, a group of chemists at , ,
began to reshape the old alchemical traditions into a scientific discipline. Boyle in particular is regarded as the founding father of chemistry due to his most important work, the classic chemistry text
where the differentiation is made between the claims of alchemy and the empirical scientific discoveries of the new chemistry. He formulated , rejected the classical "four elements" and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms and
that could be subject to rigorous experiment.
is considered the "Father of Modern Chemistry".
The theory of
(a substance at the root of all combustion) was propounded by the German
in the early 18th century and was only overturned by the end of the century by the French chemist , the chemical analogue of N who did more than any other to establish the new science on proper theoretical footing, by elucidating the principle of
and developing a new system of chemical nomenclature used to this day.
Prior to his work, though, many important discoveries had been made, specifically relating to the nature of 'air' which was discovered to be composed of many different gases. The Scottish chemist
(the first experimental chemist) and the Dutchman
discovered , or what Black called 'fixed air' in 1754;
discovered
and elucidated its properties and
and, independently,
isolated pure .
English scientist
that all substances are composed of indivisible 'atoms' of matter and that different atoms have varying atomic weights.
The development of the electrochemical theory of chemical combinations occurred in the early 19th century as the result of the work of two scientists in particular,
and , made possible by the prior invention of the
by . Davy discovered nine new elements including the
by extracting them from their
with electric current.
first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen.
devised an early table of elements, which was then developed into the modern
of elements by the German
and the Russian
in the 1860s. The inert gases, later called the
were discovered by
in collaboration with
at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table.
Organic chemistry was developed by
and others, following 's synthesis of
which proved that living organisms were, in theory, reducible to chemistry. Other crucial 19th c an understanding of valence bonding ( in 1852) and the application of thermodynamics to chemistry ( and
in the 1870s).
Top: Expected results:
passing through the
of the atom undisturbed.
Bottom: Observed results: a small portion of the particles were deflected, indicating .
At the turn of the twentieth century the theoretical underpinnings of chemistry were finally understood due to a series of remarkable discoveries that succeeded in probing and discovering the very nature of the internal structure of atoms. In 1897,
discovered the
and soon after the French scientist
as well as the couple
investigated the phenomenon of . In a series of pioneering scattering experiments
discovered the internal structure of the atom and the existence of the proton, classified and explained the different types of radioactivity and successfully
the first element by bombarding
His work on atomic structure was improved on by his students, the Danish physicist
and . The electronic theory of
was developed by the American scientists
The year 2011 was declared by the United Nations as the International Year of Chemistry. It was an initiative of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, and of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization and involves chemical societies, academics, and institutions worldwide and relied on individual initiatives to organize local and regional activities.
, Institute of Biochemistry, .
The current model of atomic structure is the . Traditional chemistry starts with the study of , , , , metals,
and other aggregates of matter. This matter can be studied in solid, liquid, or gas , in isolation or in combination. The , reactions and transformations that are studied in chemistry are usually the result of interactions between atoms, leading to rearrangements of the chemical bonds which hold atoms together. Such behaviors are studied in a chemistry .
The chemistry laboratory stereotypically uses various forms of . However glassware is not central to chemistry, and a great deal of experimental (as well as applied/industrial) chemistry is done without it.
is a transformation of some substances into one or more different substances. The basis of such a chemical transformation is the rearrangement of electrons in the chemical bonds between atoms. It can be symbolically depicted through a , which usually involves atoms as subjects. The number of atoms on the left and the right in the equation for a chemical transformation is equal. (When the number of atoms on either side is unequal, the transformation is referred to as a
or .) The type of chemical reactions a substance may undergo and the energy changes that may accompany it are constrained by certain basic rules, known as chemical laws.
considerations are invariably important in almost all chemical studies. Chemical substances are classified in terms of their , phase, as well as their . They can be analyzed using the tools of , e.g.
and . Scientists engaged in chemical research are known as . Most chemists specialize in one or more sub-disciplines. Several
are essential for th some of them are:
Main article:
In chemistry, matter is defined as anything that has
(it takes up space) and is made up of . The particles that make up matter have rest mass as well - not all particles have rest mass, such as the . Matter can be a pure
of substances.
A diagram of an atom based on the
The atom is the basic unit of chemistry. It consists of a dense core called the
surrounded by a space called the . The nucleus is made up of positively charged
and uncharged
(together called ), while the electron cloud consists of negatively charged
which orbit the nucleus. In a neutral atom, the negatively charged electrons balance out the positive charge of the protons. T the mass of a nucleon is 1,836 times that of an electron, yet the radius of an atom is about 10,000 times that of its nucleus.
The atom is also the smallest entity that can be envisaged to retain the
of the element, such as , , preferred (s), , and preferred types of bonds to form (e.g., , , ).
Standard form of the
of chemical elements. The colors represent different categories of elements
Main article:
A chemical element is a pure substance which is composed of a single type of atom, characterized by its particular number of
in the nuclei of its atoms, known as the
and represented by the symbol Z. The
is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus. Although all the nuclei of all atoms belonging to one element will have the same atomic number, they may not necessarily have
atoms of an element which have different mass numbers are known as . For example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element , but atoms of carbon may have mass numbers of 12 or 13.
The standard presentation of the chemical elements is in the , which orders elements by atomic number. The periodic table is arranged in , or columns, and , or rows. The periodic table is useful in identifying .
(CO2), an example of a chemical compound
Main article:
A compound is a pure chemical substance composed of more than one element. The properties of a compound bear little similarity to those of its elements. The standard nomenclature of compounds is set by the
are named according to the
are named according to the
system. In addition the
has devised a method to index chemical substances. In this scheme each chemical substance is identifiable by a number known as its .
Main article:
A ball-and-stick representation of the
molecule (C8H10N4O2).
A molecule is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure
that has its unique set of chemical properties, that is, its potential to undergo a certain set of chemical reactions with other substances. However, this definition only works well for substances that are composed of molecules, which is not true of many substances (see below). Molecules are typically a set of atoms bound together by , such that the structure is electrically neutral and all valence electrons are paired with other electrons either in bonds or in .
Thus, molecules exist as electrically neutral units, unlike ions. When this rule is broken, giving the "molecule" a charge, the result is sometimes named a
or a polyatomic ion. However, the discrete and separate nature of the molecular concept usually requires that molecular ions be present only in well-separated form, such as a directed beam in a vacuum in a . Charged polyatomic collections residing in solids (for example, common sulfate or nitrate ions) are generally not considered "molecules" in chemistry.
molecule (C6H6)
The "inert" or
and ) are composed of lone atoms as their smallest discrete unit, but the other isolated chemical elements consist of either molecules or networks of atoms bonded to each other in some way. Identifiable molecules compose familiar substances such as water, air, and many organic compounds like alcohol, sugar, gasoline, and the various .
However, not all substances or chemical compounds consist of discrete molecules, and indeed most of the solid substances that make up the solid crust, mantle, and core of the Earth are chemical compounds without molecules. These other types of substances, such as
and , are organized in such a way as to lack the existence of identifiable molecules per se. Instead, these substances are discussed in terms of
as the smallest repeating structure within the substance. Examples of such substances are mineral salts (such as ), solids like carbon and diamond, metals, and familiar
such as quartz and granite.
One of the main characteristics of a molecule is its geometry often called its . While the structure of diatomic, triatomic or tetra atomic molecules may be trivial, (linear, angular pyramidal etc.) the structure of polyatomic molecules, that are constituted of more than six atoms (of several elements) can be crucial for its chemical nature.
A chemical substance is a kind of matter with a definite
and set of . A collection of substances is called a mixture. Examples of mixtures are
and alloys.
Main article:
The mole is a unit of measurement that denotes an
(also called chemical amount). The mole is defined as the number of atoms found in exactly 0.012 kilogram (or 12&#160;grams) of , where the carbon-12 atoms are unbound, at rest and in their . The number of entities per mole is known as the , and is determined empirically to be approximately 6.022×1023 mol-1.
is the amount of a particular substance per volume of , and is commonly reported in mol-3.
Example of phase changes
Main article:
In addition to the specific chemical properties that distinguish different chemical classifications, chemicals can exist in several phases. For the most part, the chemical classifications are independent of these bulk p however, some more exotic phases are incompatible with certain chemical properties. A phase is a set of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as
Physical properties, such as
tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase. The phase of matter is defined by the , which is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of changing the bulk conditions.
Sometimes the distinction between phases can be continuous instead of having a discrete boundary, in this case the matter is considered to be in a
state. When three states meet based on the conditions, it is known as a
and since this is invariant, it is a convenient way to define a set of conditions.
The most familiar examples of phases are , , and . Many substances exhibit multiple solid phases. For example, there are three phases of solid
(alpha, gamma, and delta) that vary based on temperature and pressure. A principal difference between solid phases is the , or arrangement, of the atoms. Another phase commonly encountered in the study of chemistry is the aqueous phase, which is the state of substances dissolved in
(that is, in water).
Less familiar phases include ,
materials. While most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional systems, it is also possible to define analogs in two-dimensional systems, which has received attention for its relevance to systems in .
Main article:
An animation of the process of ionic bonding between
(Cl) to form , or common table salt. Ionic bonding involves one atom taking valence electrons from another (as opposed to sharing, which occurs in covalent bonding)
Atoms sticking together in molecules or crystals are said to be bonded with one another. A chemical bond may be visualized as the
balance between the positive charges in the nuclei and the negative charges oscillating about them. More than simple attraction and repulsion, the energies and distributions characterize the availability of an electron to bond to another atom.
A chemical bond can be a , an , a
or just because of . Each of these kinds of bonds is ascribed to some potential. These potentials create the
which hold atoms together in
or . In many simple compounds, , the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model (), and the concept of
can be used to explain molecular structure and composition.
An ionic bond is formed when a metal loses one or more of its electrons, becoming a positively charged cation, and the electrons are then gained by the non-metal atom, becoming a negatively charged anion. The two oppositely charged ions attract one another, and the ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between them. For example,
(Na), a metal, loses one electron to become an Na+ cation while
(Cl), a non-metal, gains this electron to become Cl-. The ions are held together due to electrostatic attraction, and that compound
(NaCl), or common table salt, is formed.
molecule (CH4), the carbon atom shares a pair of valence electrons with each of the four hydrogen atoms. Thus, the octet rule is satisfied for C-atom (it has eight electrons in its valence shell) and the duet rule is satisfied for the H-atoms (they have two electrons in their valence shells).
In a covalent bond, one or more pairs of
are shared by two atoms: the resulting electrically neutral group of bonded atoms is termed a . Atoms will share valence electrons in such a way as to create a
electron configuration (eight electrons in their outermost shell) for each atom. Atoms that tend to combine in such a way that they each have eight electrons in their valence shell are said to follow the . However, some elements like
need only two electrons in their outermost shell to attain this
these atoms are said to follow the duet rule, and in this way they are reaching the electron configuration of the noble gas , which has two electrons in its outer shell.
Similarly, theories from
can be used to predict many ionic structures. With more complicated compounds, such as , valence bond theory is less applicable and alternative approaches, such as the
theory, are generally used. See diagram on electronic orbitals.
Main article:
In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its ,
or aggregate . Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structures, it is invariably accompanied by an
of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in
thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants.
A reaction is said to be
if the final state is lower on the energy scale th in the case of
the situation is the reverse. A reaction is said to be
if the reaction releases heat in the case of , the reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings.
Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the . The speed of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann's population factor
- that is the probability of a molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the . The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction to occur can be in the form of heat, light,
or mechanical
in the form of .
A related concept , which also incorporates entropy considerations, is a very useful means for predicting the feasibility of a reaction and determining the state of equilibrium of a chemical reaction, in . A reaction is feasible only if the total change in the
is negative, ; if it is equal to zero the chemical reaction is said to be at .
There exist only limited possible states of energy for electrons, atoms and molecules. These are determined by the rules of , which require
of energy of a bound system. The atoms/molecules in a higher energy state are said to be excited. The molecules/atoms of substance in an excited energy state are ofte that is, more amenable to chemical reactions.
The phase of a substance is invariably determined by its energy and the energy of its surroundings. When the
of a substance are such that the energy of the surroundings is not sufficient to overcome them, it occurs in a more ordered phase like liquid or solid as is the case with water (H2O); a liquid at room temperature because its molecules are bound by . Whereas
(H2S) is a gas at room temperature and standard pressure, as its molecules are bound by weaker .
The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on the size of energy
emitted from one substance. However, heat energy is often transferred more easily from almost any substance to another because the
responsible for vibrational and rotational energy levels in a substance have much less energy than
invoked for the electronic energy transfer. Thus, because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat is more easily transferred between substances relative to light or other forms of electronic energy. For example, ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation is not transferred with as much efficacy from one substance to another as thermal or electrical energy.
The existence of characteristic energy levels for different
is useful for their identification by the analysis of . Different kinds of spectra are often used in chemical , e.g. , , , , etc. Spectroscopy is also used to identify the composition of remote objects - like stars and distant galaxies - by analyzing their radiation spectra.
Emission spectrum of
is often used to indicate the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a
or to transform other chemical substances.
Main article:
During chemical reactions, bonds between atoms break and form, resulting in different substances with different properties. In a blast furnace, iron oxide, a , reacts with carbon monoxide to form iron, one of the , and carbon dioxide.
When a chemical substance is transformed as a result of its interaction with another substance or with energy, a chemical reaction is said to have occurred. A chemical reaction is therefore a concept related to the "reaction" of a substance when it comes in close contact with another, whethe exposure to some form of energy, or both. It results in some energy exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well as with the system environment, which may be designed vessels—often .
Chemical reactions can result in the formation or
of molecules, that is, molecules breaking apart to form two or more smaller molecules, or rearrangement of atoms within or across molecules. Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of chemical bonds. , , acid-base
and molecular
are some of the commonly used kinds of chemical reactions.
A chemical reaction can be symbolically depicted through a . While in a non-nuclear chemical reaction the number and kind of atoms on both sides of the equation are equal, for a nuclear reaction this holds true only for the nuclear particles viz. protons and neutrons.
The sequence of steps in which the reorganization of chemical bonds may be taking place in the course of a chemical reaction is called its . A chemical reaction can be envisioned to take place in a number of steps, each of which may have a different speed. Many
with variable stability can thus be envisaged during the course of a reaction. Reaction mechanisms are proposed to explain the
and the relative product mix of a reaction. Many
specialize in exploring and proposing the mechanisms of various chemical reactions. Several empirical rules, like the
often come in handy while proposing a mechanism for a chemical reaction.
According to the
gold book, a chemical reaction is "a process that results in the interconversion of chemical species." Accordingly, a chemical reaction may be an
or a . An additional caveat is made, in that this definition includes cases where the
is experimentally observable. Such detectable chemical reactions normally involve sets of molecular entities as indicated by this definition, but it is often conceptually convenient to use the term also for changes involving single molecular entities (i.e. 'microscopic chemical events').
The crystal lattice structure of
(KCl), a salt which is formed due to the attraction of K+ cations and Cl- anions. Note how the overall charge of the ionic compound is zero.
Main article:
An ion is a charged species, an atom or a molecule, that has lost or gained one or more electrons. When an atom loses an electron and thus has more protons than electrons, the atom is a positively charged ion or . When an atom gains an electron and thus has more electrons than protons, the atom is a negatively charged ion or . Cations and anions can form a crystalline lattice of neutral , such as the Na+ and Cl- ions forming , or NaCl. Examples of
that do not split up during
is composed of gaseous matter that has been completely ionized, usually through high temperature.
(HBr), pictured, is dissolved in water, it forms the strong acid
Main article:
A substance can often be classified as an acid or a . There are several different theories which explain acid-base behavior. The simplest is , which states than an acid is a substance that produces
when it is dissolved in water, and a base is one that produces
when dissolved in water. According to , acids are substances that donate a positive
to another substance in by extension, a base is the substance which receives that hydrogen ion.
A third common theory is , which is based on the formation of new chemical bonds. Lewis theory explains that an acid is a substance which is capable of accepting a pair of electrons from another substance during the process of bond formation, while a base is a substance which can provide a pair of electrons to form a new bond. According to this theory, the crucial things being exchanged are charges.[] There are several other ways in which a substance may be classified as an acid or a base, as is evident in the history of this concept.
Acid strength is commonly measured by two methods. One measurement, based on the Arrhenius definition of acidity, is , which is a measurement of the hydronium ion concentration in a solution, as expressed on a negative
scale. Thus, solutions that have a low pH have a high hydronium ion concentration, and can be said to be more acidic. The other measurement, based on the Br?nsted–Lowry definition, is the
(Ka), which measures the relative ability of a substance to act as an acid under the Br?nsted–Lowry definition of an acid. That is, substances with a higher Ka are more likely to donate hydrogen ions in chemical reactions than those with lower Ka values.
Main article:
Redox (reduction-oxidation) reactions include all
in which atoms have their
changed by either gaining electrons (reduction) or losing electrons (oxidation). Substances that have the ability to oxidize other substances are said to be oxidative and are known as , oxidants or oxidizers. An oxidant removes electrons from another substance. Similarly, substances that have the ability to reduce other substances are said to be reductive and are known as , reductants, or reducers.
A reductant transfers electrons to another substance, and is thus oxidized itself. And because it "donates" electrons it is also called an electron donor. Oxidation and reduction properly refer to a change in oxidation number—the actual transfer of electrons may never occur. Thus, oxidation is better defined as an increase in , and reduction as a decrease in oxidation number.
Main article:
Although the concept of
is widely used across sciences, in the context of chemistry, it arises whenever a number of different states of the chemical composition are possible, as for example, in a mixture of several chemical compounds that can react with one another, or when a substance can be present in more than one kind of phase.
A system of chemical substances at equilibrium, even though having an unchanging composition, molecules of the substances continue to react with one another thus giving rise to a . Thus the concept describes the state in which the parameters such as chemical composition remain unchanged over time.
Main article:
Chemical reactions are governed by certain laws, which have become fundamental concepts in chemistry. Some of them are:
(1662, relating pressure and volume)
(1787, relating volume and temperature)
(1809, relating pressure and temperature)
leads to the important concepts of , , and .
continues to be conserved in , even in modern physics. However,
shows that due to , whenever non-material "energy" (heat, light, kinetic energy) is removed from a non-isolated system, some mass will be lost with it. High energy losses result in loss of weighable amounts of mass, an important topic in .
, although in many systems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the ratios tend to require large numbers, and are frequently represented as a fraction.
This article relies largely or entirely upon a . Relevant discussion may be found on the . Please help
by introducing
to additional sources. (September 2014)
Chemistry is typically divided into several major sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry.
is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their
and . Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry.
is the study of the ,
that take place in living . Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, as in
or . Biochemistry is also associated with
is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of .
is the preparation, characterization, and understanding of substances with a useful function. The field is a new breadth of study in graduate programs, and it integrates elements from all classical areas of chemistry with a focus on fundamental issues that are unique to materials. Primary systems of study include the chemistry of condensed phases (solids, liquids, ) and
between different phases.
is the stu including transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, sugars, their interactions, and the roles they play in forming, maintaining, and modifying the nervous system.
is the study of how subatomic particles come together and make nuclei. Modern
is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the
is an important result and tool for this field.
is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and
of . An organic compound is defined as any compound based on a carbon skeleton.
is the study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include , , , , , and more recently, . Physical chemistry has large overlap with . Physical chemistry involves the use of
in deriving equations. It is usually associated with
and theoretical chemistry. Physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from , but again, there is very strong overlap.
is the study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within
or ). In particular the application of
to chemistry is called . Since the end of the , the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of , which is the art of developing and applying
for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with (theoretical and experimental)
Other disciplines within chemistry are traditionally grouped by the type of matter being studied or the kind of study. These include ,
, the study of
(carbon-based) , the , the study of chemical processes using physical co and , the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their
and . Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g.
the chemical study of the
Other fields include ,
(and ), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and many others.
Main article:
represents an important economic activity worldwide. The
in 2013 had sales of 980.5 billion with a profit margin of 10.3%.
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Atkins, P.W. Galileo's Finger ()
Atkins, P.W. Atkins' Molecules (Cambridge University Press)
Kean, Sam. The Disappearing Spoon - and other true tales from the Periodic Table (Black Swan) London, 2010
The Periodic Table (Penguin Books) [1975] translated from the Italian by Raymond Rosenthal (1984)
Stwertka, A. A Guide to the Elements (Oxford University Press)
Introductory undergraduate text books
Atkins, P.W., Overton, T., Rourke, J., Weller, M. and Armstrong, F. Shriver and Atkins inorganic chemistry (4th edition) 2006 (Oxford University Press)
Chang, Raymond. Chemistry 6th ed. Boston: James M. Smith, 1998. .
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(2001). Organic Chemistry (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. &#160;.
Voet and Voet Biochemistry (Wiley)
Advanced undergraduate-level or graduate text books
Atkins, P.W. Physical Chemistry (Oxford University Press)
Atkins, P.W. et al. Molecular Quantum Mechanics (Oxford University Press)
McWeeny, R. Coulson's Valence (Oxford Science Publications)
Pauling, L. The Nature of the chemical bond (Cornell University Press)
Pauling, L., and Wilson, E. B. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry (Dover Publications)
Smart and Moore Solid State Chemistry: An Introduction (Chapman and Hall)
Stephenson, G. Mathematical Methods for Science Students (Longman)
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