From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the concept "God" in the context of
and . For the general concept of "a god", see . For God in specific religions, see . For discussion of the existence of God, see . For other uses, see .
"God the Father", a representation of the theistic version of God, by
and , God is conceived as the
and principal object of . The
as described by
commonly includes the attributes of
(infinite knowledge),
(unlimited power),
(present everywhere),
(perfect goodness), , and eternal and necessary existence. In , God is the
of the universe, while in , God is the creator, but not the sustainer, of the universe.
is the belief in the existence of one God or in the oneness of God. In , God is the universe itself. In , God is purported not to exist, while God is deemed unknown or unknowable within the context of . God has also been conceived as being
(immaterial), a
being, the source of all , and the "greatest conceivable existent". Many notable
have developed arguments for and against the .
There are many , and different names are attached to different cultural ideas about God's identity and attributes. In the ancient Egyptian era of , possibly the earliest recorded monotheistic religion, this deity was called , premised on being the one "true" Supreme Being and Creator of the Universe. In the
and , "He Who Is," "", and the
YHWH are used as names of God, while , and
are sometimes used in Christianity as vocalizations of YHWH. In Judaism, it is common to refer to God by the titular
or , the latter of which is believed by some scholars to descend from the Egyptian Aten. In , the name , "Al-El," or "Al-Elah" ("the God") is used, while Muslims also have a
for God. In ,
is often considered a
deity. Other religions have names for God, for instance,
The many different conceptions of God, and competing claims as to God's characteristics, aims, and actions, have led to the development of ideas of , , or a , which postulates that there is one underlying theological truth, of which all religions express a partial understanding, and as to which "the devout in the various great world religions are in fact worshipping that one God, but through different, overlapping concepts or mental images of him."
fresco Creation of the Sun and Moon by
(c. 1512), a well-known example of the depiction of
Main article:
The earliest written form of the Germanic word God (always, in this usage, ) comes from the 6th-century
. The English word itself is derived from the
* ?u?an. The reconstructed
form * ?hu-tó-m was likely based on the root * ?hau(?)-, which meant either "to call" or "to invoke". The Germanic words for God were originally —applying to both genders—but during the process of the
from their indigenous , the words became a .
In the , the capitalized form of God continues to represent a distinction between monotheistic "God" and "gods" in . The English word God and its counterparts in other languages are normally used for any and all conceptions and, in spite of significant differences between religions, the term remains an English translation common to all. The same holds for Hebrew , but , God is also given a proper name, the
YHWH, in origin the name of an
deity, . In many translations of the , when the word LORD is in all capitals, it signifies that the word represents the tetragrammaton.
(: ?????) is the
term with no
used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews meaning "The God" (with a capital G), while "" (: ????) is the term used for a deity or a god in general. God may also be given a proper name in monotheistic currents of Hinduism which emphasize the , with early references to his name as - in
Main article:
There is no clear consensus on the nature of God. The
include the
definition of God in , the
view of , and the . The
differ in their view of the divine: views of
vary by region, sect, and caste, ranging from monotheistic to polytheistic to atheistic. Divinity was
by the historical Buddha, particularly
and . However, other sentient beings, including gods, can at best only play a supportive role in one's personal path to salvation. Conceptions of God in the latter developments of the
tradition give a more prominent place to notions of the divine.[]
Main articles:
is the belief in Christianity that God is one God in three persons: ,
hold that there is only one god, and may claim that the one true god is worshiped in different religions under different names. The view that all theists actually worship the same god, whether they know it or not, is especially emphasized in
describes God as one God in three persons. The Trinity is composed of ,
's most fundamental concept is
(meaning "oneness" or "uniqueness"). God is described in the
as: "Say: He is Allah, the One and O Allah, the Eternal, A He begetteth not, nor is H And there is none like unto Him." Muslims repudiate the Christian doctrine of the
and divinity of , comparing it to . In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension or equal and does not resemble any of his creations in any way. Thus,
are not , and are not expected to visualize God.
is the belief and worship of a single god while accepting the existence or possible existence of other .
Main articles: ,
generally holds that God exists realistically, objectively, and independen that God created and that God is om and that God is personal and interacting with the universe through, for example,
and the prayers of humans. Theism holds that God is both trans thus, God is simultaneously infinite and in some way present in the affairs of the world. Not all theists subscribe to all the above propositions, but they usually subscribe to one or more of them (see, by way of comparison, ). Catholic theology holds that God is
and is not involuntarily subject to time. Most theists hold that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent, although this belief raises questions about God's responsibility for evil and suffering in the world. Some theists ascribe to God a self-conscious or purposeful limiting of omnipotence, omniscience, or benevolence. , by contrast, asserts that, due to the nature of time, God's omniscience does not mean the deity can predict the future. Theism is sometimes used to refer in general to any belief in a god or gods, i.e., monotheism or polytheism.
holds that God is wholly : God exists, but does not intervene in the world beyond what was necessary to create it. In this view, God is not
and does not literally answer prayers or cause miracles to occur. Common in Deism is a belief that God has no interest in humanity and may not even be aware of humanity.
and , respectively, combine Deism with the Pantheistic or Panentheistic beliefs discussed below. Pandeism is proposed to explain as to Deism why God would create a universe and then abandon it, and as to Pantheism, the origin and purpose of the universe.
holds that God is the universe and the universe is God, whereas
holds that God contains, but is not identical to, the Universe.[] It is a ; some views of Hinduism except , S some divisions of
and , along with many varying denominations and individuals within denominations. , Jewish mysticism, paints a pantheistic/panentheistic view of God—which has wide acceptance in , particularly from their founder —but only as an addition to the Jewish view of a personal god, not in the original pantheistic sense that denies or limits persona to God.[]
, which is related to , is a form of theism which holds that God is either not wholly good or is fully malevolent as a consequence of the . One such example comes from 's , in which Ivan Karamazov rejects God on the grounds that he allows children to suffer. Another example would be .[]
In modern times, some more abstract concepts have been developed, such as
and . The contemporaneous French philosopher
has however proposed a
essence of .
God has also been conceived as being
(immaterial), a
being, the source of all , and the "greatest conceivable existent". These attributes were all supported to varying degrees by the early ,
theologian philosophers, including , , and , respectively.
holds that the universe can be explained without any reference to the supernatural, or to a supernatural being. Some non-theists avoid the concept of God, whilst accepting that it is other non-theists understand God as a symbol of human values and aspirations. The nineteenth-century English
declared that he refused to say "There is no God", because "the word 'God' is to me a sound conveying no clear or distinct affirmation"; he said more specifically that he disbelieved in the Christian god.
proposed an approach dividing the world of philosophy into what he called "" (NOMA). In this view, questions of the , such as those relating to the
of God, are - and are the proper domain of . The methods of science should then be used to answer any empirical question about the natural world, and theology should be used to answer questions about ultimate meaning and moral value. In this view, the perceived lack of any empirical footprint from the magisterium of the supernatural onto natural events makes science the sole player in the natural world.
Another view, advanced by , is that the existence of God is an empirical question, on the grounds that "a universe with a god would be a completely different kind of universe from one without, and it would be a scientific difference."
argued that the doctrine of a Creator of the Universe was difficult to prove or disprove and that the only conceivable scientific discovery that could disprove the existence of a Creator would be the discovery that the universe is infinitely old.
and co-author
state in their book, , that it is reasonable to ask who or what created the universe, but if the answer is God, then the question has merely been deflected to that of who created God. Both authors claim however, that it is possible to answer these questions purely within the realm of science, and without invoking any divine beings.
Depiction of God in the Catholic Church, Latin America
Main article:
argues that while there is a wide array of supernatural concepts found around the world, in general, supernatural beings tend to behave much like people. The construction of gods and spirits like persons is one of the best known traits of religion. He cites examples from , which is, in his opinion, more like a modern
than other religious systems.
and Timothy Jurgensen demonstrate through formalization that Boyer's explanatory model matches physics'
in positing not directly observable entities as intermediaries.
Stewart Guthrie contends that people project human features onto non-human aspects of the world because it makes those aspects more familiar.
also suggested that god concepts are projections of one's father.[]
was one of the earliest to suggest that gods represent an extension of human social life to include supernatural beings. In line with this reasoning, psychologist Matt Rossano contends that when humans began living in larger groups, they may have created gods as a means of enforcing morality. In small groups, morality can be enforced by social forces such as gossip or reputation. However, it is much harder to enforce morality using social forces in much larger groups. Rossano indicates that by including ever-watchful gods and spirits, humans discovered an effective strategy for restraining selfishness and building more cooperative groups.
Main article:
summarized
which he believed were proof for the existence of God
Countless arguments have been proposed in attempt to prove the existence of God. Some of the most notable arguments are the , the
proposed by , and the
formulated both by
and . Even among , these proofs are debated, and some, such as the Ontological Argument, are highly controversial.
spends a section of his treatise on God refuting St. Anselm's proof.
St. Anselm's approach was to define God as, "that than which nothing greater can be conceived". Famed pantheist philosopher
would later carry this idea to its extreme: “By God I understand a being absolutely infinite, i.e., a substance consisting of infinite attributes, of which each one expresses an eternal and infinite essence.” For Spinoza, the whole of the natural universe is made of one substance, God, or its equivalent, Nature. His proof for the existence of God was a variation of the Ontological argument.
Some theologians, such as the scientist and theologian , argue that the existence of God is not a question that can be answered using the .
argues that science and religion are not in conflict and do not .
There are many philosophical issues concerning the existence of God. Some definitions of God are nonspecific, while others can be self-contradictory. Arguments for the existence of God typically include metaphysical, empirical, inductive, and subjective types, while others revolve around the order and complexity in the world and perceived holes in evolutionary theory.
Arguments against the existence of God typically include empirical, deductive, and inductive types. Conclusions reached include views that: "God does not exist" (); "God almost certainly does not exist" (de facto ); "no one knows whether God exists" (); "God exists, but this cannot be proven or disproven" (weak ); and that "God exists and this can be proven" (strong theism). There are numerous variations on these positions.[]
Different religious traditions assign differing (though often similar) attributes and characteristics to God, including expansive powers and abilities, psychological characteristics, gender characteristics, and preferred nomenclature. The assignment of these attributes often differs according to the
in the culture from which they arise. For example, , attributes of , and
share certain similarities arising from their common roots.
Main article:
The 99 , engraved into the ceiling of the
The word God is “one of the most complex and difficult in the English language.” In the
tradition, “the Bible has been the principal source of the conceptions of God”. That the Bible “includes many different images, concepts, and ways of thinking about” God has resulted in perpetual “disagreements about how God is to be conceived and understood”.
Throughout the Hebrew and Christian Bibles there are many names for God. One of them is Elohim. Another one is El Shaddai, meaning "God Almighty". A third notable name is El Elyon, which means "The Most High God".
God is described and referred in the
by certain names or attributes, the most common being , meaning "Most Compassionate" and Al-Rahim, meaning "Most Merciful" (See ).
, a tradition in Hinduism, has .
Main article:
The gender of God can be viewed as a literal or as an
aspect of a
who, in Classical western philosophy, transcends bodily form. In
religions, the gods are more likely to have literal sexual genders, allowing them to interact with each other and with humans in a sexual way. In most
religions, there is no comparable being for God to relate to in a literal gender-based way. Thus, in Classical western philosophy the
of this one-and-only deity is most likely to be an
statement of how humans and God address, and relate to, each other. Namely, God is seen as begetter of the world and revelation which corresponds to the active (as opposed to feminine receptive) role in sexual intercourse.
God is usually characterised as male in Biblical sources, except: female in , , a mother in , , , , , ; and a mother hen in
See also: ,
God the Father by , c. 1515
plays a significant role among many believers. Muslims believe that the
God. He is viewed as a personal God and there are no intermediaries, such as , to contact God. Prayer often also includes
and . God is often believed to be forgiving. For example, a
states God would replace a sinless people with one who sinned but still asked repentance. Christian theologian
writes that there are good reasons to suggest that a "personal god" is integral to the Christian outlook, but that one has to understand it is an analogy. "To say that God is like a person is to affirm the divine ability and willingness to relate to others. This does not imply that God is human, or located at a specific point in the universe."
Adherents of different religions generally disagree as to how to best
God and what is
for mankind, if there is one. There are different approaches to reconciling the contradictory claims of monotheistic religions. One view is taken by exclusivists, who believe they are the
or have exclusive access to , generally through
or encounter with the Divine, which adherents of other religions do not. Another view is . A pluralist typically believes that his religion is the right one, but does not deny the partial truth of other religions. An example of a pluralist view in Christianity is , i.e., the belief that one's religion is the fulfillment of previous religions. A third approach is , where everybody is s an example being : the doctrine that
is eventually available for everyone. A fourth approach is , mixing different elements from different religions. An example of syncretism is the
Theologians and philosophers have ascribed a number of attributes to God, including , , , perfect , divine , and
existence. God has been described as , a personal being, the source of all , and the greatest conceivable being existent. These attributes were all claimed to varying degrees by the early ,
scholars, including , , and .
developed arguments for the existence of God, while attempting to comprehend the precise implications of God's attributes. Reconciling some of those attributes generated important philosophical problems and debates. For example, God's omniscience may seem to imply that God knows how free agents will choose to act. If God does know this, their apparent
might be illusory, or foreknowledge does not
and if God does not know it, God may not be omniscient.
However, if by its essential nature, free will is not predetermined, then the effect of its will can never be perfectly predicted by anyone, regardless of intelligence and knowledge. Although knowledge of the options presented to that will, combined with perfect-infinite intelligence, could be said to provide God with omniscience if omniscience is defined as knowledge or understanding of all that is.
The last centuries of philosophy have seen vigorous questions regarding the
raised by such philosophers as ,
and , although Kant held that the
was valid. The
response has been either to contend, like , that faith is ""; or to take, like , the
position. Some
agree that none of the arguments for God's existence are compelling, but argue that
is not a product of , but requires risk. There would be no risk, they say, if the arguments for God's existence were as solid as the laws of logic, a position summed up by
as: "The heart has reasons which reason knows not of."
Most major religions hold God not as a metaphor, but a being that influences our day-to-day existences. Many believers allow for the existence of other, less powerful , and give them names such as , , , , and .
The percentage of population in European countries who responded in a 2005 survey that they "believe there is a God".
Main articles:
"God" in . (ed)The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, , 1995.
. "God, Arguments for the Existence of", Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, 2000.
Jan Assmann, Religion and Cultural Memory: Ten Studies, Stanford University Press 2005, p.59
M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, Vol.2, 1980, p.96
Freud, S. (1939). Moses and Monotheism: Three Essays.
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N. Shupak, The Monotheism of Moses and the Monotheism of Akhenaten. Sevivot, 1995.
William F. Albright, From the Patriarchs to Moses II. Moses out of Egypt. The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 36, No. 2 (May, 1973), pp. 48-76. doi 10.
Pantheism: A Non-Theistic Concept of Deity - Page 136, Michael P. Levine - 2002
A Feast for the Soul: Meditations on the Attributes of God : ... - Page x, Bahá?u?lláh, Joyce Watanabe - 2006
Philosophy and Faith of Sikhism - Page ix, Kartar Singh Duggal - 1988
The Intellectual Devotional: Revive Your Mind, Complete Your Education, and Roam confidently with the cultured class, David S. Kidder, Noah D. Oppenheim, page 364
Raphael Lataster (2013). There was no Jesus, there is no God: A Scholarly Examination of the Scientific, Historical, and Philosophical Evidence & Arguments for Monotheism. p. 165.  . This one god could be of the deistic or pantheistic sort. Deism might be superior in explaining why God has seemingly left us to our own devices and pantheism could be the more logical option as it fits well with the ontological argument's 'maximally-great entity' and doesn't rely on unproven concepts about 'nothing' (as in 'creation out of nothing'). A mixture of the two, pandeism, could be the most likely God-concept of all.
Alan H. Dawe (2011). The God Franchise: A Theory of Everything. p. 48.  . Pandeism: This is the belief that God created the universe, is now one with it, and so, is no longer a separate conscious entity. This is a combination of pantheism (God is identical to the universe) and deism (God created the universe and then withdrew Himself).
Christianity and Other Religions, by John Hick and Brian Hebblethwaite. 1980. Page 178.
. Merriam-Webster, Inc.
The ulterior etymology is disputed. Apart from the unlikely hypothesis of adoption from a foreign tongue, the OTeut. "ghuba" implies as its preTeut-type either "*ghodho-m" or "*ghodto-m". The former does not appear to
but the latter would represent the neut. pple. of a root "gheu-". There are two Aryan roots of the required form ("*g,heu-" with palatal aspirate) one with meaning 'to invoke' (Skr. "hu") the other 'to pour, to offer sacrifice' (Skr "hu", Gr. χεηi;ν, OE "geotàn" Yete v).
Barnhart, Robert K (1995). The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology: the Origins of American English Words, page 323. .
; "God n. ME & OE, akin to Ger gott, Goth guth, prob. & IE base * ?hau-, to call out to, invoke & Sans havaté, (he) 1. any of various beings conceived of as supernatural, immortal, and having special powers over the lives and affairs of people and
deity, esp. a male deity: typically considere 2. an ima idol 3. a person or thing deified or excessively 4. [G-] in monotheistic religions, the creator and ruler of the universe, regarded as eternal, infinite, all-powerful, and all- ; the Almighty"
; "God /g?d/ noun: 1. the one Supreme Being, the creator and ruler of the universe. 2. the Supreme Being considered with reference to a particular attribute. 3. (lowercase) one of several deities, esp. a male deity, presiding over some portion of worldly affairs. 4. (often lowercase) a supreme being according to some particular conception: the God of mercy. 5. Christian Science. the Supreme Being, understood as Life, Truth, Love, Mind, Soul, Spirit, Principle. 6. (lowercase) an idol. 7. (lowercase) any deified person or object. 8. (often lowercase) Gods, Theater. 8a. the upper balcony in a theater. 8b. the spectators in this part of the balcony."
Barton, G.A. (2006). A Sketch of Semitic Origins: Social and Religious. Kessinger Publishing.  .
. Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS.
"Islam and Christianity", Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking
also refer to God as Allāh.
L. Gardet. "Allah". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
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Froese, P Christopher Bader (Fall–Winter 2004). "Does God Matter? A Social-Science Critique". Harvard Divinity Bulletin. 4 32.
See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism (Viveka Press 2002)
. Sri Granth.
D. Gimaret. "Allah, Tawhid". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
Robyn Lebron (2012). Searching for Spiritual Unity...Can There Be Common Ground?. p. 117.  .
Müller, Max. (1878) Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion: As Illustrated by the Religions of India. London:Longmans, Green and Co.
; John Haldane (2003). Atheism and Theism. Blackwell Publishing. p. 8.  .
Lemos, Ramon M. (2001). A Neomedieval Essay in Philosophical Theology. Lexington Books. p. 34.  .
. Philosophy . Archived from
Sean F. Johnston (2009). The History of Science: A Beginner's Guide. p. 90.  . In its most abstract form, deism may not attempt to describe the characteristics of such a non-interventionist creator, or even that the universe is identical with God (a variant known as pandeism).
Paul Bradley (2011). This Strange Eventful History: A Philosophy of Meaning. p. 156.  . Pandeism combines the concepts of Deism and Pantheism with a god who creates the universe and then becomes it.
Allan R. Fuller (2010). Thought: The Only Reality. p. 79.  . Pandeism is another belief that states that God is identical to the universe, but God no longer exists in a way where H therefore, this theory can only be proven to exist by reason. Pandeism views the entire universe as being from God and now the universe is the entirety of God, but the universe at some point in time will fold back into one single being which is God Himself that created all. Pandeism raises the question as to why would God create a universe and then abandon it? As this relates to pantheism, it raises the question of how did the universe come about what is its aim and purpose?
Peter C. Rogers (2009). Ultimate Truth, Book 1. p. 121.  . As with Panentheism, Pantheism is derived from the Greek: 'pan'= all and 'theos' = God, it literally means “God is All” and “All is God.” Pantheist purports that everything is part of an all-inclusive, indwelling, intangible G or that the Universe, or nature, and God are the same. Further review helps to accentuate the idea that natural law, existence, and the Universe which is the sum total of all that is, was, and shall be, is represented in the theological principle of an abstract 'god' rather than an individual, creative Divine Being or Beings of any kind. This is the key element which distinguishes them from Panentheists and Pandeists. As such, although many religions may claim to hold Pantheistic elements, they are more commonly Panentheistic or Pandeistic in nature.
Henry, Michel (2003). I am the Truth. Toward a philosophy of Christianity. Translated by Susan Emanuel. Stanford University Press.  .
. "God and the philosophers" in . (ed)The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, , 1995. ISBN=978-1-.
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(2006). The God Delusion. Great Britain: Bantam Press.  .
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Aquinas, Thomas (1990). Kreeft, Peter, ed. Summa of the Summa. Ignatius Press. pp. 65–69.
Aquinas, Thomas (1274). . Part 1, Question 2, Article 3.
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The word atheism originated from the Greek
(atheos), meaning "without god(s)".
, an English biologist, was the first to come up with the word agnostic in 1869 Dixon, Thomas (2008). Science and Religion: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 63.  . However, earlier authors and published works have promoted an agnostic points of view. They include , a 5th-century
Greek philosopher. .
from the original on . While the pious might wish to look to the gods to provide absolute moral guidance in the relativistic universe of the Sophistic Enlightenment, that certainty also was cast into doubt by philosophic and sophistic thinkers, who pointed out the absurdity and immorality of the conventional epic accounts of the gods. Protagoras' prose treatise about the gods began 'Concerning the gods, I have no means of knowing whether they exist or not or of what sort they may be. Many things prevent knowledge including the obscurity of the subject and the brevity of human life.'
Francis Schüssler Fiorenza and Gordon D. Kaufman, “God,” Ch 6, in Mark C. Taylor, ed, Critical Terms for Religious Studies (University of Chicago, ), 136-140.
Gen. 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; Ex. 6:31; Ps. 91:1, 2
Gen. 14:19; Ps. 9:2; Dan. 7:18, 22, 25
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(1st ed.). New York, Boston: Twelve. Hachette Book Group. p. 175.  . humans are modeled on elohim, specifically in their sexual differences.
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() [1908–26]. . John A Selbie (Volume 4 of 24 ( Behistun (continued) to Bunyan.) ed.). Edinburgh: Kessinger Publishing, LLC. p. 476.  . The encyclopedia will contain articles on all the religions of the world and on all the great systems of ethics. It will aim at containing articles on every religious belief or custom, and on every ethical movement, every philosophical idea, every moral practice.
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