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Actaea racemosa (black cohosh, black bugbane, black snakeroot, fairy candle;
Cimicifuga racemosa) is a
to eastern North America from the extreme south of Ontario to central Georgia, and west to Missouri and Arkansas. It grows in a variety of woodland habitats, and is often found in small woodland openings. The
have long been used medicinally by . Extracts from these plant materials are thought to possess , , and
properties.
Today, black cohosh extracts are being studied as effective treatments for symptoms associated with .
Actaea racemosa inflorescence
Black cohosh is a smooth (glabrous)
that produces large,
from an underground , reaching a height of 25–60 centimetres (9.8–23.6 in). The basal
are up to 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) long and broad, forming repeated sets of three leaflets (tripinnately compound) having a coarsely toothed (serrated) margin. The
are produced in late spring and early summer on a tall stem, 75–250 centimetres (30–98 in) tall, forming
up to 50 centimetres (20 in) long. The flowers have no
or , and consist of tight clusters of 55-110 white, 5–10 mm long
surrounding a white stigma. The flowers have a distinctly sweet, fetid smell that attracts flies, , and beetles. The
5–10 mm long, with one , containing several .
has a history of taxonomic uncertainty dating back to , who — on the basis of morphological characteristics of the
and seeds — had placed the species into the genus Actaea. This designation was later revised by
reclassifying the species to the genus . Nuttall's classification was based solely on the dry follicles produced by black cohosh, which are typical of species in Cimicifuga. However, recent data from morphological and
analyses demonstrate that black cohosh is more closely related to species of the genus Actaea than to other Cimicifuga species. This has prompted the revision to Actaea racemosa as originally proposed by Linnaeus. Blue cohosh (), despite its similar common name belongs to another , the , and is therefore not closely related to black cohosh.
A. racemosa grows in dependably moist, fairly heavy soil. It bears tall tapering racemes of white midsummer flowers on wiry black-purple stems, whose mildly unpleasant, medicinal smell at close range gives it the common name "Bugbane". The drying seed heads stay handsome in the garden for many weeks. Its deeply cut leaves, burgundy colored in the variety "atropurpurea", add interest to gardens, wherever summer heat and drought do not make it die back, which make it a popular garden perennial. It has gained the 's .
used black cohosh to treat gynecological and other disorders, including , kidney problems, and . Following the arrival of European settlers in the U.S. who continued the medicinal usage of black cohosh, the plant appeared in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia in 1830 under the name “black snakeroot”. In 1844 A. racemosa gained popularity when Dr. John King, an , used it to treat rheumatism and nervous disorders. Other eclectic physicians of the mid-nineteenth century used black cohosh for a variety of maladies, including endometritis, amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, menorrhagia, sterility, severe after-birth pains, and for increased breast milk production.
Black cohosh is used today mainly as a
marketed to women as remedies for the symptoms of , menopause and other
problems. Recent meta-analysis of contemporary evidence supports these claims. Study design and dosage of black cohosh preparations play a role in clinical outcome, and recent investigations with pure compounds found in black cohosh have identified some beneficial effects of these compounds on physiological pathways underlying age-related disorders like .
According to : "Doctors are worried that using black cohosh long term may cause thickening of the womb lining. This could lead to an increased risk of womb cancer." They also caution that people with liver problems should not take it as it can damage the liver, although a 2011 meta-analysis of research evidence suggested this concern may be unfounded.
Studies on human subjects who were administered two commercially available black cohosh preparations did not detect
effects on the breast.
No studies exist on long-term safety of black cohosh use in humans. In a
mouse model of , black cohosh did not increase incidence of primary breast cancer, but increased metastasis of pre-existing breast cancer to the lungs.
has been reported in a few individuals using black cohosh, but many women have taken the herb without reporting adverse health effects, and a meta-analysis of several
clinical trials found no evidence that black cohosh preparations have any adverse effect on liver function. Although evidence for a link between black cohosh and liver damage is not conclusive, Australia has added a warning to the label of all black cohosh-containing products, stating that it may cause harm to the liver in some individuals and should not be used without medical supervision. Other studies conclude that liver damage from use of black cohosh is unlikely, and that the main concern over its safe use is lack of proper authentication of plant materials and adulteration of commercial preparations with other plant species.
Reported direct side-effects also include dizziness, headaches, ; ; low blood pressure and weight problems.
Because the vast majority of black cohosh materials are harvested from plants growing in the wild, a recurring concern regarding the safety of black cohosh-containing dietary supplements is mis-identification of plants causing unintentional mixing-in (adulteration) of potentially harmful materials from other plant sources.
Like most plants, black cohosh tissues and organs contain many
had originally been implicated in effects of black cohosh extracts on
in menopausal women. Several other studies, however, have indicated absence of estrogenic effects and compounds in black cohosh-containing materials. Recent findings suggest that some of the clinically relevant physiological effects of black cohosh may be due to compounds that bind and activate
receptors, and a derivative of serotonin with high affinity to , , has been identified in black cohosh. Complex biological , such as
(e.g. ), have been shown to reduce -induced bone loss () by blocking
in in vitro and in vivo models. 23-O-acetylshengmanol-3-O-β-d-xylopyranoside, a cycloartane glycoside from Actaea racemosa, has been identified as a novel efficacious modulator of GABAA receptors with sedative activity in mice
a contiment of Cimicifuga racemosa (Black Cohosh)]]
a contiment of Cimicifuga racemosa (Black Cohosh)
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