rg6 6ap是什么意思啊
rg6 6ap是什么意思啊
09-04-14 &匿名提问 发布
In accordance with the technical conditions, the pace of development and the different characteristics of suburbanization of American cities can be divided into two periods in modern times and modern to 1920 for the sector, the previous period of modern suburbanization since the modern era of suburbanization. Suburbanization of the United States in modern times to rail traffic as the main technical requirements, the relatively slow pace of development to suburban development. The suburbanization of the key technologies of modern motor vehicles and road conditions for the development of the process of development by leaps and bounds, mainly in the development of outer suburbs. Suburbanization of the United States can be divided into a modern three phases: first phase from 1920 to the early postwar period, is the accelerated development of suburbanizatio the second phase of the early postwar period and for 50-60 years, mostly in rural areas of explosive stage of development, rural population in the United States to gradually become the third stage since age 70, the latter stage of suburbanization, suburban gradual increase of the heterogeneity. First, the suburbanization process in the U.S. population 1. Suburbanization of the United States the beginning of the modern stage and volatility Suburbanization of the United States is not unique to modern urban phenomenon, but as early as in the modern period there has been strong and growing momentum. However, due to various reasons, the suburbanization of the United States in modern times is relatively slow pace of development. And after 1920, due to extensive use of private cars, the highway network, the gradual formation of backward economic structure, changes in the industrial economy, the Federal and local policy guidance, as well as the outskirts of the city center of resistance to mergers and other reasons, to suburbanization to move forward faster. 20 years ago, the Center City's population growth rate is higher than the suburbs. For example, during the years
and , the Center City's population growth rate of 35.5% and 26.7%, respectively, 27.6% higher than the rural areas and 22.4%, indicating to the Center of the U.S. population is still mainly focused on the city . However, in the 20's, Center City's population growth rate of 23.3% and 34.2% for the suburbs, and the latter over the former nearly 11 percentage points. Since then, the suburban population growth rate has been higher than the central city, and a growing gap between the United States the distribution of the population began to concentrate mainly by the change mainly to diversify. 20 Therefore, the United States during the beginning of modern urban suburbanization. During the Great Depression of the 30s, the United States to slow down the pace of suburbanization, but the population growth rate is still higher than the central city of 8.7 percentage points. (Note: Donald N. Rothblatt and Daniel Garr, Suburbia: An International Assessment (London: Groom Helm, 1986), p.4.) To 40 years, picked up the pace of suburbanization and age over 20. This stage of suburbanization in American cities accelerate the development and showing the two characteristics of volatility. From another perspective, in the 20's, the United States metropolitan areas for each additional 100 people, the suburbs accounted for 40.7, and Center City, accounting for 59.3 people. Although the central city population growth is still more than the suburbs, but the outskirts of the proportion of the population share over the previous two age significantly increased from 27.9% and 28.4% to 40.7% increase. 30 years, the proportion of the outskirts of greater metropolitan area for each additional 100 people, the suburbs accounted for 59.2, or nearly 60%, while central city accounts for only 40.8 people (Note: Anthony Downs, Opening Up the Suburbs: An Urban Strategy for America
 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973), p.199.) Suburbs have greatly exceeded the proportion of center city. This shows that the age of 20 and 30 is a turning point in the development of the United States suburbanization period, then, in terms of population growth or of the population accounted for the proportion of metropolitan area, the pace of development in the suburbs than the central city, suburbs in the metropolitan area gradually dominant, the United States gradually developed into a national suburbanization. 30's and early 40's, the Great Depression and World War II as a result of the impact of urbanization and the United States, almost all of suburbanization at a standstill, has shown great volatility. For example, the New York suburbs in the 20's the growth rate of 67.3%, 18.2% fell to 30 during the Chicago suburbs fell to 73.9 percent from 10.4 percent, 125.8 percent from the Cleveland suburb of 13.0% fell to the Los Angeles suburb of 157.9% from 30.1% down . (Note: Dennis R. Judd, The Politics of American Cities: Private Power and Public policy (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1979), p.157.) Especially in the construction of residential suburbs is hesitant. Suburbanization of this period mainly depends on industrial investment in rural areas led to the suburbanization of population, it showed 20 and post-war boom era of the different characteristics of suburban population growth that is below the main layer of workers, the population of the different strong qualitative. In the 20's and the post-war boom period, although the industry is also driven suburbanization suburbanization of workers, but the outskirts of population growth is mainly the middle and upper classes of society, they are to avoid annoyance of city life, and the establishment of a utopia in the suburbs of the tenants communities, and therefore highly homogeneous population. However, due to the slow phase of the process of suburbanization, such heterogeneity on the outskirts of the homogeneity of the characteristics of the population does not have a significant impact. 2. 50-60 during the early postwar period and the explosive spread of the suburbs And 50-60 during the early post-war history of the United States suburbanization is the wave of the most magnificent period. People during the Great Depression and World War II housing demand up in the post-war burst out, young people to form families, to move into the existing family home, the rapid expansion of domestic demand, so in rural areas had the most prosperous in U.S. history construction fever was explosive suburban spread. Construction and technological progress as well as the spread of the suburbs has created conditions that many residential construction company the use of standardized production methods, extensive use of prefabricated parts, the bulk of residential construction. At the same time, these big companies from the whole community on the outskirts of overall planning, schools, shops, entertainment, health care, churches and other infrastructure facilities and services. Due to the rapid establishment of suburban communities, rural population growth. 50 when the U.S. suburbs increased by 19 million, growth rate of 48.6 percent, while the central city increased by only 6.3 million, the growth rate of only 10.7%. It is worth noting that many are still on the outskirts of major cities to carry out large-scale merger, otherwise, the growth rate of the city center will be only 1.5%, while suburbs is as high as 61.6%, the outskirts of central city population growth rate will be 41 times more . (Note: Dennis R. Judd, The Politics of American Cities: Private Power and Public policy (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1979), p.159.) At the same time, the larger the metropolitan area, the faster the pace of development in the suburbs. For example, more than 300 million people in the metropolitan area, the Center City's population growth rate of only 1.7%, while suburbs is 98%. 100,000 population in the metropolitan area in the following, the Center City, a growth rate of 26% in the suburbs To 74%. Into the 60's, the suburban population growth rate has decreased 26.8%, but the city remains the center of the 6.4 percent growth rate of more than 4 times. (Note: Donald N. Rothblatt and Daniel Garr, Suburbia: An International Assessment (London: Groom Helm, 1986), p.4.) However, if the share from the outskirts of the metropolitan area's share of the population, the 60's higher than the 50's, 50's metropolitan area for each additional 100 persons, Center City is only 23.8 people, the suburbs accounted for 76.2, but to 60 years, metropolitan area for each additional 100 people, went to the suburbs accounted for 84 (Note: Anthony Downs, Opening Up the Suburbs: An Urban Strategy for America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973), p.199.) The degree of suburbanization in the United States continues to deepen. To 1970, rural population of 75.6 million people, accounting for 37.2 percent of the total population, while the Center City and 31.4 percent each of the rural population, rural population of more than the central city and the rural population. (Note: Carl Abbott, The New Urban America: Growth and Politics in Sunbelt Cities (The University of North Carolina Press, 1987), p.60.) It can be said that the United States has become a national suburbanization. After the era of suburbanization of 3.70-80 times 70 years, slowing down the development of suburbanization, suburban population growth rate of only 17.4%, (Note: Donald N. Rothblatt and Daniel Garr, Suburbia: An International Assessment (London: Groom Helm, 1986), p.4. Katharine L. Bradbury, et al., Urban Decline and the Future of American Cities (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1982), p.1.) But this was mainly due to the outskirts of the expanding population base results, in fact, the level of suburbanization is still further enhanced. As the degree of suburbanization further deepen, more and more the center of the city had a population decrease. As early as the 50s, a number of cities began to appear on the phenomenon of population decline, such as Boston and St. Louis, their population dropped by 13%. (Note: Peter Hall, Cities of Tomorrow: An Intellectual History of Urban Planing and Design in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, Inc., 1988), p.294.) 1970, when a population of more than 100,000 in 153 cities, 70 mid-97% reduction in this period of 5 years, these city's population dropped by an average of 0.8 percent, of which more than 41 fell 6.5%. Northeast and Midwest of the decline in some major cities faster and 70s in New York, a drop of 11.2% to 11.9% in Chicago, Detroit 21.3% Cleveland 24%, while St. Louis has dropped by 27.9%, that is, decline rate of 1 / 4 or more. (Note: less bang, Culture and Sport, Zhang Ning, such as the compiler: &Urban Sociology&, Zhejiang People's Publishing House, 1986 edition, p. 36.) As the central city and suburban population to reduce the increase of population, the level of suburbanization of the U.S. population continues to rise, in 1980, rural population of 101.5 million, accounting for the proportion of the country rose to 44.8%. (Note: Carl Abbott, The New Urban America: Growth and Politics in Sunbelt Cities (The University of North Carolina Press, 1987), p.60.) And in some metropolitan areas, rural population accounts for the absolute superiority, become a major the main body of the city population. Since the 70s, with the United States to further enhance the level of suburbanization, the outskirts of the heterogeneity of the population has been enhanced, increasing the degree of urbanization. From modern times, the white middle-class suburb of nuclear families constitute the main body of the population, the elderly, the unmarried young people and a very small proportion of the population of ethnic minorities. However, according to research institutions in the United States a &City Academy& a study &of the outskirts of the ash& in the period , the outskirts of the elderly households increased by almost 1 / 3, while the Center City is only an increase of 10% . It is the legend and the other hand, not many elderly retirees Sunbelt cities, but in the quiet suburbs to seek shelter. By 1980, in the elderly over the age of 62, some 48% living in rural areas, suburbs and even a specialized community of the elderly, for example,罗斯穆尔- Maryland, Washington, DC is a northwest suburb of the elderly community, A total of 2,300 sets of the community of independent or semi-independent residential-style, covers an area of 900 acres, more than 5,000 elderly people living in residential buildings which have the parapet wall around the nearby there are a variety of commercial, entertainment and medical services. (Note: Peter O. Muller, Contemporary Suburban America (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1981), p.69.) On the ethnic composition, its heterogeneity is also growing.
years, the outskirts of the black population increased by 1,840,000 people, a growth rate of 59.1%, far exceeding the outskirts of the growth rate of 24.0% whites, and blacks more than the central city of the growth rate of 5.3 percent. In the mid-80, 1 / 4 more than the city's blacks live in urban fringe, and some even become black suburban enclaves. For example, a west Chicago suburb of Harvey, the black population in 1960 from 6.8% to 65.6% in 1980. 20 in Los Angeles in the outskirts of poverty, its residents are mainly ethnic minorities. (Note: Robert Cervero, Suburban Gridlock (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University, 1986), p.25.) Elderly, the poor and minorities in the suburbs of the pool caused by the increasing decline of the suburbs. Therefore, from the early 70s, the United States appeared in the suburbs of the city (citification) phenomenon, and some scholars call &post-suburban era.& Some peri-urban areas and city centers in the community and demographic characteristics of the face has little difference, at the same time, the Center City to the many social problems are the proliferation of suburbs, such as crime, unemployment, decay, crowding, pollution, frustration, such as population decline. 70's, Detroit, Cleveland, Washington, Pittsburgh, Boston, St. Louis inner city suburbs such as a decrease of 10% of the population of each city's inner suburbs lost population between 3-10 million. (Note: Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), p.234.) Homestead those spacious, elegant environment of the upper middle class suburb of further expansion towards the outer suburbs. Second, employment of the suburbanization process Since industrialization and urbanization, the cities are increasingly becoming the U.S. economic activity and social life based on the principal. However, with large areas of the U.S. population moved to the U.S. economy, the focus is also shifting from cities to suburbs, manufacturing, commerce, service sector enterprises, offices and even their home to the suburbs. The first transfer to the outskirts of the economic activity in the manufacturing sector, followed by commerce, services and enterprises such as offices. With the suburbanization of economic activities, the center of the function and status of the city have been a serious challenge. 1. Suburbanization of manufacturing With the growing size of American cities expanded, the concentration of industrial enterprises in a number of non-economic factors such as rising land prices, tax increase, the aging infrastructure, environmental pollution, traffic congestion, coupled with the expansion of enterprise scale, as well as the U.S. economy to post-industrial economy, so that the city, including industrial production has been limited aggregation, and the development of automobile transportation to the suburbs, compared with the proliferation of industry created conditions. Therefore, access to modern society, the United States faster manufacturing center to the outskirts of the city transfers, the industrial satellite towns and industrial parks set up in general. As early as the late 19th century, traditional industries have been established in the outskirts of a large number of satellite towns, this is the earliest industrial suburbanization manifestations. After the 20th century, the development of suburban industrial parks industrial suburbanization became the main form of another, to the outskirts of the United States in 1940 to 35 industrial parks. War and confusion, with the development of high-tech industries, industrial parks in rural areas have emerged in large numbers. To the early 70s, the United States up to the Industrial Park for more than 2500. In 1972, only the Chicago metropolitan area's industrial park as many as 356. (Note: RJJohnston, The American Urban System: A Geographical Perspective (New York: St.Martin 's Press, 1982), p.208) the development of suburban industrial parks and the concept of post-war changes in the relevant people. Before World War II, it will be seen as the suburbs only &lying city& is to evade the issue of sanctuary cities, so rural areas for industrial development is full of hostility. High-tech industries as a result of post-war low level of pollution and the increase in employment would also allow the suburbs to raise revenue and reduce traffic congestion, commuting time and cost savings, etc., so in the rural areas for industrial parks and government attitudes and policies have greatly change. For example, the 1951 St. Louis County Planning Board in its annual report: &The trend now is for the development of suburban industrial planning, industrial development is not prohibited.& (Note: Jon C. Teaford, Post-Suburbia: Government and Politics in the Edge Cities (Baltimore: The Jones Hopkins University Press, 1997), pp.50-51, p.56.) As a result of industrial relocation to the suburbs, the outskirts of the rapid growth of manufacturing employment, and the Center for the decline of manufacturing industry city, the suburbs have gradually become the main manufacturing. For example, from , the Center City, the annual growth rate of employment in the manufacturing sector, only 0.7%, while suburbs is as high as 3.1%. (Note: Neil L. Shumsky, ed., Urbanization and the Growth of Cities (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1996), p.432.) And in some metropolitan areas, the Center City, not only did not increase employment, but in sharp decline. For example, in , more than millions of people in the metropolitan area, the Center City, a total decrease of 880,000 manufacturing jobs, while the suburban zone has increased by 2.5 million. Therefore, the central city's industrial employment in metropolitan areas continue to lower the proportion of. In 1963, the United States have more than half of the distribution of manufacturing employment in rural areas, and in 1981 to about 2 / 3. (Note: Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), p.284.). This shows that industrial production is not the central city of the United States one of the main features. 2. Suburbanization of business and services Center of commercial activities is an important characteristic, the characteristics of commercial activities tend to focus on the central business district. However, with the central business district of the rising land prices, traffic congestion, intense competition, resulting in a powerful thrust. Business activities is another important feature of proximity, that is, closer to the consumer. With the continuing suburbanization of the U.S. population, rising purchasing power of the suburbs, the outskirts of gravity for increased commercial activities. In addition, as the vehicle to become a fashion, the car park has become an indispensable business organizations, but the central business district space, so the choice of an ideal suburb. Large-scale retail to the suburbs during the two world wars started in proliferation. In 1925, Sears Chicago, Robert Wood, vice president of the urban population in the United States made a serious study of the flow after the conclusion that, due to the extensive use of car parking and commercial areas of the shortage of commercial areas is not the most commercial area ideal, and we should treat the company's new set of A-type stores in low population density, consumers easily accessible by car place. (Note: Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States
 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), p.12.) Big retail stores to open in the suburbs of the United States to establish commercial suburbanization process, and the emergence of suburban shopping malls and popular so that the formation of a mighty commercial suburbanization trend. Shopping Center is the first car in 1925 in the suburbs outside of Kansas, &Country Club Plaza.& But it was not until 1946, the United States only eight shopping centers. (Note: Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp.257-267.) After the war, the rapid development of shopping malls, to the mid-60s, soared to more than 8000. In 1962, the Chicago metropolitan area there are 62 shopping malls, to the mid-70s to more than 100, including 15 for the regional shopping center, all in the rural areas. (Note: RJJohnston, The American Urban System: A Geographical Perspective (New York: St.Martin 's Press, 1982), p.219.) 50 years, there has been a United States also has a fully enclosed air-conditioned mall, the Mall in 1956, first appeared in South Minneapolis near Mall Intel. The size of these shopping malls to do more the greater the age of 70 there is a large super-regional mall, which is a typical city泰森斯科纳Virginia (Tyson's Corner), 1983 in its turnover of 160 million U.S. million, providing 14,000 jobs. Long Island's Roosevelt Field larger, covers 220 sales in 1980 square feet, have 180 shops, 275,000 customers a week to accept, and an annual turnover of 230 million U.S. dollars. (Note: Kenneth T. Jackson, CrabgrassFrontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp.259-260.) Woodfield Chicago suburbs 24 miles northwest of Fort resignation before it can go a commercial and office centers. The Center's commercial business area of 230 square feet, and has a capacity of 10,000 car parking, retail sales in 1982 for its 383 million U.S. dollars. In addition, there are a number of suburban commercial development along the highway, a commercial gallery. For example, I-494 is a commercial center south of Minneapolis, 8 miles, is located in the outskirts of Bloomington, and Richfield edina a stretch seven miles between the long commercial, office, hotels and factories as a whole commercial corridor. (Note: David C. Thorns, Suburbia (Suffolk: MacGibbon & Kee Ltd., 1972), p.65. Barbara M. Kelly, ed., Suburbia Re-examined (New York: Greenwood Press, 1989), p.49.) As a result of the development of suburban shopping malls, suburban businesses, turnover and employment growth rate far exceeded the city center. First of all, from the development of commercial organizations, the Center City commercial organizations are decreasing, while the suburbs are growing rapidly. For example, more than 300 million people in the metropolitan area , years, the central business district of the commercial organizations to reduce by 26%, and its suburbs has increased by 29.9%. (Note: RJJohnston, The American Urban System: A Geographical Perspective (New York: St.Martin 's Press, 1982), p.219.) Second, the turnover from the commercial rate of increase, the suburbs are also far ahead, such as the years , Atlanta, turnover of wholesale trade increased by only a 78.5%, and 5 suburban counties increased by 296.5%; the same period, the Norfolk - Portsmouth City increased by only 70.1 percent, while the outskirts of the two counties increased by 223.4%. (Note: Carl Abbott, The New Urban America: Growth and Politics in Sunbelt Cities (The University of North Carolina Press, 1987), p.195.) Third, the business turnover from the suburbs in the metropolitan area's share of the country as a whole of view, the suburbs are gradually winning advantage. For example, in Atlanta in 1963 when the retail industry in the metropolitan area accounted for 66%, and by 1977 had dropped to 28%, that is, the suburbs accounted for 72%. (Note: Carl Abbott, Urban America in the Modern Age: 1920 to the Present (Harlan Davidson Inc., 1987), pp.113-114.) 1975, the United States 15,000 suburban shopping center sales in the United States accounted for more than half of total sales. By 1984, the country's 20,000 shopping centers total national retail sales accounted for 2 / 3. (Note: Mattei Dogan, John D. Kasarda, eds., The Metropolis Era, Volume 1, A World of Giant Cities
 (London: Sage Publications, 1988), p.62.) Finally, from a commercial point of view, employment in the suburbs is also increasing rapidly, while the center city has decreased sharply. For example, years , in the country for more than 33 million people in the metropolitan area, the Center City retail and wholesale industry jobs decreased by 565,000 and 302,000, and the suburbs has increased by 2.36 million and 79.8. (Note: RJJohnston, The American Urban System: A Geographical Perspective
 (New York: St.Martin 's Press, 1982), pp.207-220.) On all of the metropolitan area, in the years , the Center City retail and wholesale industry's annual employment growth rate of 0.8 % and 1.1%, while suburbs were 5.3% and 7.4%. (Note: Neil L. Shumsky, ed., Urbanization and the Growth of Cities (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1996), p.432.) These suburban shopping mall is not only a commercial center, but also services and entertainment center, entertainment and service industries as a result of the shift to the suburbs, the outskirts of the service sector employment growth rate far exceeding the city center. Between , the Center City, the annual growth rate of the service sector, only 2.6%, and 6.1% in the suburbs, with a growth rate faster than the central city more than doubled. (Note: Neil L. Shumsky, ed., Urbanization and the Growth of Cities (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1996), p.432.) 3. Suburban office park development and suburbanization of office industry Corporate headquarters is a very strong business organizations, many important things that needs high-level executives face-to-face negotiations, so the central business district has been the home base of corporate headquarters. However, due to the central business district, high-rent office space, forcing a number of large companies some of the non-decision-making branch to move to the suburbs, and in the central business district of offices and personnel to minimize the extent of compression. At the same time, the outskirts of the manufacturing industry, commerce and the rapid development of service industries, the functions of the central business district has been weakened, less attractive. And the development of electronic communication technologies to enable the transmission of information has a strong real-time, between the corporate headquarters and branch office may at any time to contact the office for the enterprise sector to create the conditions suburbanization. So many companies have established branches in the suburbs or even just moving the headquarters to the suburbs, the establishment of a large number of office parks (office park), and thus further weaken the functions of the central city. The United States the first suburban office park in the early 50's in Birmingham, Alabama was built in the outskirts of the city, five miles from the city center, covers an area of 70 acres. The office park is designed to emphasize the creation of a campus-like work environment, office buildings less than three, and open space, green grass and lush flowers and trees. From the beginning of the 60's, office parks began to accelerate the pace of development, such as the outskirts of Atlanta in 1964 that there is only one office park, and in 1974 increased to 40, employed 2.5 million people. (Note: Peter O. Muller, Contemporary Suburban America (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1981), p.157.) Into the 70's, the suburban office park a more rapid pace of development to the mid-80's, the United States 80% of suburban office space in Prior to this, 15 years established. In contrast, the central business district office space is only 36% during this period is established. With the development of suburban office park, the U.S. division of many large companies have moved their headquarters and even the suburbs. While this migration as early as the beginning of the 20th century has started, for example, a publishing company in New York City Doubleday in 1910, moved to Long Island's Garden City, &Reader's Digest& magazine in 1936, Sanchez moved to Westphalia Special普莱森特维尔County. However, from the beginning of the 50's, the growing momentum of this migration strong, large companies in New York City headquarters of a rapid decline in the number. For example, the 60's, in the United States before the 500 large companies, there are 136 headquarters in Manhattan, New York, but dropped to 80 to the mid-65, the headquarters of many large companies moved to the suburbs, such as Stanford, Connecticut , White Plains, New York, New Jersey, Bergen County and other places (Note: Robert Cervero, Suburban Gridlock (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University, 1986), pp.1-7.) including some of the most famous companies, such as IBM, Xerox Corporation, Gulf Oil Company, General Telephone. In other cities, the relocation of corporate headquarters is also very serious, for example, St. Louis, in 1970 there are only 43 companies to move to the suburbs from the city center. Boston also has a large number of companies moved to the 128 along to the late 50's, Boston added 40 percent of jobs located along Highway 128. (Note: RJJohnston, The American Urban System: A Geographical Perspective
 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1982), pp.207-208.) Nationwide, the increase in suburban corporate headquarters is also extremely fast. In 1965, the American magazine &Fortune& of the statistics before the 500 largest companies, 47 are headquartered in the suburbs, in 1969 to 56 in 1974 soared to 128, more than doubled in 1978 to 170 years. In the &Fortune& magazine as the first statistical 501-1000 large companies, in 1974, headquartered in the suburbs of 161 in 1978 to 182. This shows that the 70's, the corporate headquarters of suburbanization faster migration during this period all the corporate headquarters, 75% were relocated to the suburbs from the city center. (Note: Peter O. Muller, Contemporary Suburban America (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1981), pp.148-149.) The U.S. manufacturing industry, commerce, service industry and even the office industry has been transferred to the suburbs, rural areas continue to increase total employment, and even more than the Center City. By 1980, the United States nearly half of total employment in the suburbs. (Note: Ervin Y. Galantay, ed., The Metropolis in Transition (New York: Paragon House Publishers, 1987), P.288.) And in the United States before the 15 metropolitan areas, only 1 / 3 the work of distribution in the central city, that is, the suburbs accounted for 2 / 3, and in its After another 10 metropolitan areas in the city center and only 36% of employment, that is, the suburbs accounted for 64%. (Note: John C. Lowe, &Patterns of Spatial Dispersion in Metropolitan Commuting&, Urban Geogranphy, Vol.19No.3, 1988, P.237.) Assumed the outskirts of the city more and more functions, more and more urbanized. Therefore, one observer pointed out: &the suburbs are no longer monolithic, but has become a kaleidoscope.& (Note: Robert Cervero, Suburban Gridlock (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University, 1986), p.39.) Third, the United States the characteristics of suburbanization With the level of economic development compared to Western Europe, the United States cities, suburbanization significantly different performance characteristics, we can speed from suburbanization, suburban development patterns and the fate of central cities to examine several aspects. First of all, the pace of development of suburbanization, the United States starting point for the development of rural areas with low speed. The reason why the United States the development of the outskirts of the low starting point, because the United States, many suburban communities or towns are in the process of suburbanization population established, a very small population base, and many suburban areas in Western Europe has existed since ancient towns, the population base is already very Great. Therefore, the rate of suburbanization on the United States even more quickly, as early as age 20, of suburban population growth rate has exceeded the city center. And until the 50's and nine countries in Western Europe Center City's population growth rate is still higher than the rural areas, the two were 5.55% and 13.21%. To 60 years, suburban population growth rate of Western Europe have increased to 10.73%, almost 10.81% of the Center City flat. (Note: Donald N. Rothblatt and Daniel Garr, Suburbia: An International Assessment (London: Groom Helm, 1986), p.5.) Secondly, from the suburban model of development, the United States and Western Europe, there are also significant differences. Suburbanization in Western Europe is under the guidance of land-use planning and development of rural areas standardizing comprehensive intensification of the outskirts of the outskirts of cities and towns in Western Europe, the main mode of development. In Britain, for example, due to Howard's Garden City ideas in the UK have had a significant impact on the British Government decided to limit the spread of the expansion of large cities. Thus, the British Parliament in 1938 adopted a &Green Belt Act,& established in London in around five miles of a wide green zone, other than to prohibit the establishment of zoning in the residents of the community, thus limiting the expansion of London. In order to limit the development of rural areas, the Government has restricted the traffic flow at the outskirts of London, therefore, entered the outskirts of the City of London's population, only about 8% by private cars. (Note: Philip C. Dolce ed., Suburbia, The American Dream and Dilemma (New York: Anchor Press, 1976), p.182.) 1943, the British Ministry of Planning and urban and rural areas to set up, the Department have the right to control land use and the exercise of judicial power to local governments. Since then, in the outskirts of London to establish a series of satellite-intensive in order to reduce congestion in London, but do not allow the establishment of the spread of suburban-style, this approach to follow the example of other European countries. Suburbanization of the United States there is no overall plan for rigorous, even though the 30's had been raised by the federal government, &the town plan to build green,& but as a result of the strong opposition of private capital and vanish into thin air. Although each of the other suburbs of the United States has its own planning, suburban residential and commercial, industrial land is separate, but the planning is too small, referred to as &piecemeal& planning, can not effectively control the outskirts of the spread. Not only that, the post-war construction of the United States also strongly highway, speed up the commute between the suburbs, but also introduced to encourage residents to the suburbs to settle in the residential mortgage insurance and subsidy system, therefore, the United States was an explosion in the post-war suburbanization or the spread of the expansion of residential and low population density. This pattern of suburbanization is called &the American model.& (Note: Philip C. Dolce ed., Suburbia, The American Dream and Dilemma (New York: Anchor Press, 1976), p.169.) Again, the United States and Western European countries different from the fate of the city center. American cities in the process of suburbanization in the loss of a large number of employment opportunities and the middle and upper classes, the tax base was seriously weakened, and the poor and minorities to the central city has been brought together, the welfare burden, inadequate financial costs, an aging city facilities, Center City is therefore increasingly showing signs of decline. Although the post-war European cities have also emerged the phenomenon of suburbanization, but because of the slow pace of suburbanization and peri-urban poor and the rich did not appear in the layout on the outskirts of differentiation, the population is distributed more evenly, so the city has not shown signs of decline . The reason for this difference, but also with European and American cultural traditions are closely related. European cities have a long tradition of planning, the development of each city, there are stringent planning, personal interests should be subordinated to collective interests, local interests should be subordinated to the overall interests. And the prevalence of individualism in the United States, when the deterioration of central city living, people in a position to do so will mean that we will vote with their feet, no longer concerned about the fate of the city center, even if the urban decay. The United States there is a deep-rooted tradition of anti-urban culture, and the Europeans believe that civilization is a product of the city, almost every major city in Europe is a cultural center, has a profound and powerful cultural charm, it is impossible to make a a symbol of the decline of the culture of big cities go. Therefore, although in many cities in Europe in World War II revival can be destroyed, while cities in the United States in a peaceful environment while the development has suffered as the scourge of war. From a policy perspective, the U.S. government has always been held on urban development policy of laissez-faire, not only that, the post-war housing policy the United States, duty-free policy and highway construction on the outskirts of the spread of the United States played a role in adding fuel to the flames. In addition, the difference between Europe and the United States system of local government also led to the fate of their different cities. European cities the authority the Government greater control over their surrounding villages have the right to development, may refuse to provide certain infrastructure such as gas, electricity, drainage and water supply systems, which can control the spread of the suburbs. On the contrary the United States, the Center City and surrounding municipalities are equal government agencies, and thus city centers in other municipalities the right to interfere in the affairs of the coordinated development between them, we need each other. Highly developed in suburbanization and metropolitan areas of the political situation in the Balkans, the coordinated development of easier said than done! Therefore, cities in the United States can not control their own destiny, beyond the control of the outskirts of the development and maintenance of the status of their own, thus the over-development in the process of suburbanization in the emergence of signs of decline. In short, since the 20th century, since the 20's, American cities began to accelerate the pace of suburbanization, and 50-60 post-war era and the development of explosive was to the early 70s, the United States as a basic suburbanization of the country, at the same time, rural population growing heterogeneity. Suburbanization of the population at the same time, the U.S. manufacturing industry, commerce, service industry and the office sector is rapidly transferred to the suburbs, to the early 80's, the United States has been the outskirts of the employment accounted for nearly half of the country's total employment and, in some metropolitan areas , the suburbs have more than central city employment. Therefore, more and more clearly demonstrate the outskirts of the city of sexual characteristics. With the level of economic development compared to Western European countries, the United States shows that the suburbanization of the different features.
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